Ch04 mech properties of wood

4–1Chapter 4 Mechanical Properties of Wood David W. Green, Jerrold E. Winandy, and David E. Kretschmann Contents Orthotropic Nature of Wood 4–1 Elastic Properties 4–2 Modulus of Elasticity 4–2Poisson’s Ratio 4–2Modulus of Rigidity 4–3 Strength Properties 4–3 Common Properties 4–3Less Common Properties 4–24 Vibration Properties 4–25 Speed of Sound 4–25Internal Friction 4–26 Mechanical Properties of Clear Straight-Grained Wood 4–26Natural Characteristics Affecting Mechanical Properties 4–27 Specific Gravity 4–27Knots 4–27Slope of Grain 4–28Annual Ring Orientation 4–30Reaction Wood 4–31Juvenile Wood 4–32Compression Failures 4–33Pitch Pockets 4–33Bird Peck 4–33Extractives 4–33Properties of Timber From Dead Trees 4–33 Effects of Manufacturing and Service Environments 4–34 Moisture Content 4–34Temperature 4–35Time Under Load 4–37Aging 4–41Exposure to Chemicals 4–41Chemical Treatment 4–41Nuclear Radiation 4–43Mold and Stain Fungi 4–43Decay 4–43Insect Damage 4–43 References 4–44he mechanical properties presented in this chapter were obtained from tests of small pieces of woodtermed “clear” and “straight grained” because they did not contain characteristics such as knots, cross grain,checks, and splits. These test pieces did have anatomicalcharacteristics such as growth rings that occurred in consis-tent patterns within each piece. Clear wood specimens areusually considered “homogeneous” in wood mechanics. Many of the mechanical properties of wood tabulated in this chapter were derived from extensive sampling and analysisprocedures. These properties are represented as the averagemechanical properties of the species. Some properties, suchas tension parallel to the grain, and all properties for someimported species are based on a more limited number ofspecimens that were not subjected to the same sampling andanalysis procedures. The appropriateness of these latter prop-erties to represent the average properties of a species is uncer-tain; nevertheless, the properties represent the best informa-tion available. Variability, or variation in properties, is common to all materials. Because wood is a natural material and the tree issubject to many constantly changing influences (such asmoisture, soil conditions, and growing space), wood proper-ties vary considerably, even in clear material. This chapterprovides information, where possible, on the nature andmagnitude of variability in properties. This chapter also includes a discussion of the effect of growth features, such as knots and slope of grain, on clear woodproperties. The effects of manufacturing and service environ-ments on mechanical properties are discussed, and theireffects on clear wood and material containing growth featuresare compared. Chapter 6 discusses how these research resultshave been implemented in engineering standards. Orthotropic Nature of Wood Wood may be described as an orthotropic material; that is, ithas unique and independent mechanical properties in thedirections of three mutually perpendicular axes: longitudinal,radial, and tangential. The longitudinal axis L is parallel to the fiber (grain); the radial axis R is normal to the growth rings (perpendicular to the grain in the radial direction); and 4–2the tangential axis T is perpendicular to the grain but tangent to the growth rings. These axes are shown in Figure 4–1. Elastic Properties Twelve constants (nine are independent) are needed to de-scribe the elastic behavior of wood: three moduli of elasticityE, three moduli of rigidity G, and six Poisson’s ratios m. The moduli of elasticity and Poisson’s ratios are related byexpressions of the form mmij iji j EEi j i, j L,R,T =„ = , (4–1) General relations between stress and strain for a homogene- ous orthotropic material can be found in texts on anisotropicelasticity. Modulus of Elasticity Elasticity implies that deformations produced by low stressare completely recoverable after loads are removed. Whenloaded to higher stress levels, plastic deformation or failureoccurs. The three moduli of elasticity, which are denoted byE L, ER, and ET, respectively, are the elastic moduli along the longitudinal, radial, and tangential axes of wood. Thesemoduli are usually obtained from compression tests; how-ever, data for E R and ET are not extensive. Average values of ER and ET for samples from a few species are presented in Table 4–1 as ratios with EL; the Poisson’s ratios are shown in Table 4–2. The elastic ratios, as well as the elastic con-stants themselves, vary within and between species and withmoisture content and specific gravity. The modulus of elasticity determined from bending, E L, rather than from an axial test, may be the only modulus ofelasticity available for a species. Average E L values obtained from bending tests are given in Tables 4–3 to 4–5. Represen-tative coefficients of variation of E L determined with bending tests for clear wood are reported in Table 4–6. As tabulated,E L includes an effect of shear deflection; EL from bending can be increased by 10% to remove this effect approximately.This adjusted bending EL can be used to determine ER and ET based on the ratios in Table 4–1. Poisson’s Ratio When a member is loaded axially, the deformation perpen- dicular to the direction of the load is proportional to thedeformation parallel to the direction of the load. The ratio ofthe transverse to axial strain is called Poisson’s ratio. ThePoisson’s ratios are denoted by mLR, mRL, mLT, mTL, mRT, and mTR. The first letter of the subscript refers to direction of applied stress and the second letter to direction of lateraldeformation. For example, mLR is the Poisson’s ratio for deformation along the radial axis caused by stress along thelongitudinal axis. Average values of Poisson’s ratios forsamples of a few species are given in Table 4–2. Values for mRL and mTL are less precisely determined than are those for the other Poisson’s ratios. Poisson’s ratios vary within andbetween species and are affected by moisture content andspecific gravity. Radial Tangential LongitudinalFiber direction Figure 4–1. Three principal axes of wood with respect to grain direction and growth rings.Table 4–1. Elastic ratios for various species at approximately 12% moisture contenta Species ET/ELER/ELGLR/ELGLT/ELGRT/EL Hardwoods Ash, white 0.080 0.125 0.109 0.077 — Balsa 0.015 0.046 0.054 0.037 0.005 Basswood 0.027 0.066 0.056 0.046 — Birch, yellow 0.050 0.078 0.074 0.068 0.017 Cherry, black 0.086 0.197 0.147 0.097 — Cottonwood, eastern 0.047 0.083 0.076 0.052 — Mahogany, African 0.050 0.111 0.088 0.059 0.021 Mahogany, Honduras 0.064 0.107 0.066 0.086 0.028 Maple, sugar 0.065 0.132 0.111 0.063 —Maple, red 0.067 0.140 0.133 0.074 — Oak, red 0.082 0.154 0.089 0.081 — Oak, white 0.072 0.163 0.086 — — Sweet gum 0.050 0.115 0.089 0.061 0.021Walnut, black 0.056 0.106 0.085 0.062 0.021 Yellow-poplar 0.043 0.092 0.075 0.069 0.011 Softwoods Baldcypress 0.039 0.084 0.063 0.054 0.007 Cedar, northern white 0.081 0.183 0.210 0.187 0.015 Cedar, western red 0.055 0.081 0.087 0.086 0.005 Douglas-fir 0.050 0.068 0.064 0.078 0.007 Fir, subalpine 0.039 0.102 0.070 0.058 0.006 Hemlock, western 0.031 0.058 0.038 0.032 0.003 Larch, western 0.065 0.079 0.063 0.069 0.007 Pine Loblolly 0.078 0.113 0.082 0.081 0.013 Lodgepole 0.068 0.102 0.049 0.046 0.005Longleaf 0.055 0.102 0.071 0.060 0.012 Pond 0.041 0.071 0.050 0.045 0.009Ponderosa 0.083 0.122 0.138 0.115 0.017 Red 0.044 0.088 0.096 0.081 0.011Slash 0.045 0.074 0.055 0.053 0.010 Sugar 0.087 0.131 0.124 0.113 0.019 Western white 0.038 0.078 0.052 0.048 0.005 Redwood 0.089 0.087 0.066 0.077 0.011Spruce, Sitka 0.043 0.078 0.064 0.061 0.003 Spruce, Engelmann 0.059 0.128 0.124 0.120 0.010 aEL may be approximated by increasing modulus of elasticity values in Table 4–3 by 10%. 4–3Modulus of Rigidity The modulus of rigidity, also called shear modulus, indi- cates the resistance to deflection of a member caused by shearstresses. The three moduli of rigidity denoted by G LR, GLT, and GRT are the elastic constants in the LR, LT, and RT planes, respectively. For example, GLR is the modulus of rigidity based on shear strain in the LR plane and shear stresses in the LT and RT planes. Average values of shear moduli for samples of a few species expressed as ratios withE L are given in Table 4–1. As with moduli of elasticity, the moduli of rigidity vary within and between species and withmoisture content and specific gravity. Strength Properties Common Properties Mechanical properties most commonly measured and repre-sented as “strength properties” for design include modulus ofrupture in bending, maximum stress in compression parallelto grain, compressive stress perpendicular to grain, and shearstrength parallel to grain. Additional measurements are oftenmade to evaluate work to maximum load in bending, impact bending strength, tensile strength perpendicular to grain, andhardness. These properties, grouped according to the broadforest tree categories of hardwood and softwood (not corre-lated with hardness or softness), are given in Tables 4–3 to4–5 for many of the commercially important species. Averagecoefficients of variation for these properties from a limitedsampling of specimens are reported in Table 4–6. Modulus of rupture— Reflects the maximum load- carrying capacity of a member in bending and is propor-tional to maximum moment borne by the specimen.Modulus of rupture is an accepted criterion of strength, al-though it is not a true stress because the formula by whichit is computed is valid only to the elastic limit. Work to maximum load in bending— Ability to absorb shock with some permanent deformation and more or lessinjury to a specimen. Work to maximum load is a meas-ure of the combined strength and toughness of wood underbending stresses. Compressive strength parallel to grain —Maximum stress sustained by a compression parallel-to-grain speci-men having a ratio of length to least dimension of lessthan 11. Compressive stress perpendicular to grain —Reported as stress at proportional limit. There is no clearly definedultimate stress for this property. Shear strength parallel to grain— Ability to resist inter- nal slipping of one part upon another along the grain.Values presented are average strength in radial and tangen-tial shear planes. Impact bending— In the impact bending test, a hammer of given weight is dropped upon a beam from successivelyincreased heights until rupture occurs or the beam deflects152 mm (6 in.) or more. The height of the maximumdrop, or the drop that causes failure, is a comparative valuethat represents the ability of wood to absorb shocks thatcause stresses beyond the proportional limit. Tensile strength perpendicular to grain— Resistance of wood to forces acting across the grain that tend to split amember. Values presented are the average of radial andtangential observations. Hardness— Generally defined as resistance to indentation using a modified Janka hardness test, measured by the loadrequired to embed a 11.28-mm (0.444-in.) ball to one-halfits diameter. Values presented are the average of radial andtangential penetrations. Tensile strength parallel to grain— Maximum tensile stress sustained in direction parallel to grain. Relativelyfew data are available on the tensile strength of variousspecies of clear wood parallel to grain. Table 4–7 lists av-erage tensile strength values for a limited number ofspecimens of a few species. In the absence of sufficient ten-sion test data, modulus of rupture values are sometimessubstituted for tensile strength of small, clear, straight-grained pieces of wood. The modulus of rupture is consid-ered to be a low or conservative estimate of tensile strengthfor clear specimens (this is not true for lumber).Table 4–2. Poisson’s ratios for various species at approximately 12% moisture content Species mLRmLTmRTmTRmRLmTL Hardwoods Ash, white 0.371 0.440 0.684 0.360 0.059 0.051 Aspen, quaking 0.489 0.374 — 0.496 0.054 0.022 Balsa 0.229 0.488 0.665 0.231 0.018 0.009 Basswood 0.364 0.406 0.912 0.346 0.034 0.022 Birch, yellow 0.426 0.451 0.697 0.426 0.043 0.024 Cherry, black 0.392 0.428 0.695 0.282 0.086 0.048 Cottonwood, eastern 0.344 0.420 0.875 0.292 0.043 0.018 Mahogany, African 0.297 0.641 0.604 0.264 0.033 0.032 Mahogany, Honduras 0.314 0.533 0.600 0.326 0.033 0.034 Maple, sugar 0.424 0.476 0.774 0.349 0.065 0.037 Maple, red 0.434 0.509 0.762 0.354 0.063 0.044 Oak, red 0.350 0.448 0.560 0.292 0.064 0.033 Oak, white 0.369 0.428 0.618 0.300 0.074 0.036 Sweet gum 0.325 0.403 0.682 0.309 0.044 0.023 Walnut, black 0.495 0.632 0.718 0.378 0.052 0.035 Yellow-poplar 0.318 0.392 0.703 0.329 0.030 0.019 Softwoods Baldcypress 0.338 0.326 0.411 0.356 — — Cedar, northern white 0.337 0.340 0.458 0.345 — — Cedar, western red 0.378 0.296 0.484 0.403 — — Douglas-fir 0.292 0.449 0.390 0.374 0.036 0.029 Fir, subalpine 0.341 0.332 0.437 0.336 — — Hemlock, western 0.485 0.423 0.442 0.382 — — Larch, western 0.355 0.276 0.389 0.352 — — Pine Loblolly 0.328 0.292 0.382 0.362 — — Lodgepole 0.316 0.347 0.469 0.381 — —Longleaf 0.332 0.365 0.384 0.342 — — Pond 0.280 0.364 0.389 0.320 — —Ponderosa 0.337 0.400 0.426 0.359 — — Red 0.347 0.315 0.408 0.308 — —Slash 0.392 0.444 0.447 0.387 — — Sugar 0.356 0.349 0.428 0.358 — — Western white 0.329 0.344 0.410 0.334 — — Redwood 0.360 0.346 0.373 0.400 — — Spruce, Sitka 0.372 0.467 0.435 0.245 0.040 0.025 Spruce, Engelmann 0.422 0.462 0.530 0.255 0.083 0.058 4–4Table 4–3a. Strength properties of some commercially important woods grown in the United States (metric)a Static bending Com- Modulus ofModulus ofWork to maxi-mum ImpactCom- pression parallelpression perpen- dicularShear parallel toTension perpen- dicularSide hard- Common speciesnamesMoisture contentSpecific gravity brupture (kPa)elasticityc (MPa)load (kJ/m3)bending (mm)to grain (kPa)to grain (kPa)grain (kPa)to grain (kPa)ness (N) Hardwoods Alder, red Green 0.37 45,000 8,100 55 560 20,400 1,700 5,300 2,700 2,000 12% 0.41 68,000 9,500 58 510 40,100 3,000 7,400 2,900 2,600 Ash Black Green 0.45 41,000 7,200 83 840 15,900 2,400 5,900 3,400 2,300 12% 0.49 87,000 11,000 103 890 41,200 5,200 10,800 4,800 3,800 Blue Green 0.53 66,000 8,500 101 — 24,800 5,600 10,600 — — 12% 0.58 95,000 9,700 99 — 48,100 9,800 14,000 — — Green Green 0.53 66,000 9,700 81 890 29,000 5,000 8,700 4,100 3,900 12% 0.56 97,000 11,400 92 810 48,800 9,000 13,200 4,800 5,300 Oregon Green 0.50 52,000 7,800 84 990 24,200 3,700 8,200 4,100 3,500 12% 0.55 88,000 9,400 99 840 41,600 8,600 12,300 5,000 5,200 White Green 0.55 66,000 9,900 108 970 27,500 4,600 9,300 4,100 4,300 12% 0.60 103,000 12,000 115 1,090 51,100 8,000 13,200 6,500 5,900 Aspen Bigtooth Green 0.36 37,000 7,700 39 — 17,200 1,400 5,000 — — 12% 0.39 63,000 9,900 53 — 36,500 3,100 7,400 — — Quaking Green 0.35 35,000 5,900 44 560 14,800 1,200 4,600 1,600 1,300 12% 0.38 58,000 8,100 52 530 29,300 2,600 5,900 1,800 1,600 Basswood, American Green 0.32 34,000 7,200 37 410 15,300 1,200 4,100 1,900 1,100 12% 0.37 60,000 10,100 50 410 32,600 2,600 6,800 2,400 1,800 Beech, American Green 0.56 59,000 9,500 82 1,090 24,500 3,700 8,900 5,000 3,800 12% 0.64 103,000 11,900 104 1,040 50,300 7,000 13,900 7,000 5,800 Birch Paper Green 0.48 44,000 8,100 112 1,240 16,300 1,900 5,800 2,600 2,500 12% 0.55 85,000 11,000 110 860 39,200 4,100 8,300 — 4,000 Sweet Green 0.60 65,000 11,400 108 1,220 25,800 3,200 8,500 3,000 4,300 12% 0.65 117,000 15,000 124 1,190 58,900 7,400 15,400 6,600 6,500 Yellow Green 0.55 57,000 10,300 111 1,220 23,300 3,000 7,700 3,000 3,600 12% 0.62 114,000 13,900 143 1,400 56,300 6,700 13,000 6,300 5,600 Butternut Green 0.36 37,000 6,700 57 610 16,700 1,500 5,200 3,000 1,700 12% 0.38 56,000 8,100 57 610 36,200 3,200 8,100 3,000 2,200 Cherry, black Green 0.47 55,000 9,000 88 840 24,400 2,500 7,800 3,900 2,900 12% 0.50 85,000 10,300 79 740 49,000 4,800 11,700 3,900 4,200 Chestnut, American Green 0.40 39,000 6,400 48 610 17,000 2,100 5,500 3,000 1,900 12% 0.43 59,000 8,500 45 480 36,700 4,300 7,400 3,200 2,400 Cottonwood Balsam poplar Green 0.31 27,000 5,200 29 — 11,700 1,000 3,400 — — 12% 0.34 47,000 7,600 34 — 27,700 2,100 5,400 — — Black Green 0.31 34,000 7,400 34 510 15,200 1,100 4,200 1,900 1,100 12% 0.35 59,000 8,800 46 560 31,000 2,100 7,200 2,300 1,600 Eastern Green 0.37 37,000 7,000 50 530 15,700 1,400 4,700 2,800 1,500 12% 0.40 59,000 9,400 51 510 33,900 2,600 6,400 4,000 1,900 Elm American Green 0.46 50,000 7,700 81 970 20,100 2,500 6,900 4,100 2,800 12% 0.50 81,000 9,200 90 990 38,100 4,800 10,400 4,600 3,700 Rock Green 0.57 66,000 8,200 137 1,370 26,100 4,200 8,800 — — 12% 0.63 102,000 10,600 132 1,420 48,600 8,500 13,200 — — Slippery Green 0.48 55,000 8,500 106 1,190 22,900 2,900 7,700 4,400 2,900 12% 0.53 90,000 10,300 117 1,140 43,900 5,700 11,200 3,700 3,800 Hackberry Green 0.49 45,000 6,600 100 1,220 18,300 2,800 7,400 4,300 3,100 12% 0.53 76,000 8,200 88 1,090 37,500 6,100 11,000 4,000 3,900 4–5Table 4–3a. Strength properties of some commercially important woods grown in the United States (metric)a—con. Static bending Com- Modulus ofModulus ofWork to maxi- mum ImpactCom- pression parallelpression perpen- dicularShear parallel toTension perpen- dicularSide hard- Common speciesnamesMoisture contentSpecific gravity brupture (kPa)elasticityc (MPa)load (kJ/m3)bending (mm)to grain (kPa)to grain (kPa)grain (kPa)to grain (kPa)ness (N) Hickory, pecan Bitternut Green 0.60 71,000 9,700 138 1,680 31,500 5,500 8,500 — — 12% 0.66 118,000 12,300 125 1,680 62,300 11,600 — — — Nutmeg Green 0.56 63,000 8,900 157 1,370 27,400 5,200 7,100 — — 12% 0.60 114,000 11,700 173 — 47,600 10,800 — — — Pecan Green 0.60 68,000 9,400 101 1,350 27,500 5,400 10,200 4,700 5,800 12% 0.66 94,000 11,900 95 1,120 54,100 11,900 14,300 — 8,100 Water Green 0.61 74,000 10,800 130 1,420 32,100 6,100 9,900 — — 12% 0.62 123,000 13,900 133 1,350 59,300 10,700 — — — Hickory, true Mockernut Green 0.64 77,000 10,800 180 2,240 30,900 5,600 8,800 — — 12% 0.72 132,000 15,300 156 1,960 61,600 11,900 12,000 — — Pignut Green 0.66 81,000 11,400 219 2,260 33,200 6,300 9,400 — — 12% 0.75 139,000 15,600 210 1,880 63,400 13,700 14,800 — — Shagbark Green 0.64 76,000 10,800 163 1,880 31,600 5,800 10,500 — — 12% 0.72 139,000 14,900 178 1,700 63,500 12,100 16,800 — — Shellbark Green 0.62 72,000 9,200 206 2,640 27,000 5,600 8,200 — — 12% 0.69 125,000 13,000 163 2,240 55,200 12,400 14,500 — — Honeylocust Green 0.60 70,000 8,900 87 1,190 30,500 7,900 11,400 6,400 6,200 12% — 101,000 11,200 92 1,190 51,700 12,700 15,500 6,200 7,000 Locust, black Green 0.66 95,000 12,800 106 1,120 46,900 8,000 12,100 5,300 7,000 12% 0.69 134,000 14,100 127 1,450 70,200 12,600 17,100 4,400 7,600 Magnolia Cucumber tree Green 0.44 51,000 10,800 69 760 21,600 2,300 6,800 3,000 2,300 12% 0.48 85,000 12,500 84 890 43,500 3,900 9,200 4,600 3,100 Southern Green 0.46 47,000 7,700 106 1,370 18,600 3,200 7,200 4,200 3,300 12% 0.50 77,000 9,700 88 740 37,600 5,900 10,500 5,100 4,500 Maple Bigleaf Green 0.44 51,000 7,600 60 580 22,300 3,100 7,700 4,100 2,800 12% 0.48 74,000 10,000 54 710 41,000 5,200 11,900 3,700 3,800 Black Green 0.52 54,000 9,200 88 1,220 22,500 4,100 7,800 5,000 3,700 12% 0.57 92,000 11,200 86 1,020 46,100 7,000 12,500 4,600 5,200 Red Green 0.49 53,000 9,600 79 810 22,600 2,800 7,900 — 3,100 12% 0.54 92,000 11,300 86 810 45,100 6,900 12,800 — 4,200 Silver Green 0.44 40,000 6,500 76 740 17,200 2,600 7,200 3,900 2,600 12% 0.47 61,000 7,900 57 640 36,000 5,100 10,200 3,400 3,100 Sugar Green 0.56 65,000 10,700 92 1,020 27,700 4,400 10,100 — 4,300 12% 0.63 109,000 12,600 114 990 54,000 10,100 16,100 — 6,400 Oak, red Black Green 0.56 57,000 8,100 84 1,020 23,900 4,900 8,400 — 4,700 12% 0.61 96,000 11,300 94 1,040 45,000 6,400 13,200 — 5,400 Cherrybark Green 0.61 74,000 12,300 101 1,370 31,900 5,200 9,100 5,500 5,500 12% 0.68 125,000 15,700 126 1,240 60,300 8,600 13,800 5,800 6,600 Laurel Green 0.56 54,000 9,600 77 990 21,900 3,900 8,100 5,300 4,400 12% 0.63 87,000 11,700 81 990 48,100 7,300 12,600 5,400 5,400 Northern red Green 0.56 57,000 9,300 91 1,120 23,700 4,200 8,300 5,200 4,400 12% 0.63 99,000 12,500 100 1,090 46,600 7,000 12,300 5,500 5,700 Pin Green 0.58 57,000 9,100 97 1,220 25,400 5,000 8,900 5,500 4,800 12% 0.63 97,000 11,900 102 1,140 47,000 7,000 14,300 7,200 6,700 Scarlet Green 0.60 72,000 10,200 103 1,370 28,200 5,700 9,700 4,800 5,300 12% 0.67 120,000 13,200 141 1,350 57,400 7,700 13,000 6,000 6,200 Southern red Green 0.52 48,000 7,900 55 740 20,900 3,800 6,400 3,300 3,800 12% 0.59 75,000 10,300 65 660 42,000 6,000 9,600 3,500 4,700 Water Green 0.56 61,000 10,700 77 990 25,800 4,300 8,500 5,700 4,500 12% 0.63 106,000 13,900 148 1,120 46,700 7,000 13,900 6,300 5,300 4–6Table 4–3a. Strength properties of some commercially important woods grown in the United States (metric)a—con. Static bending Com- Modulus ofModulus ofWork to maxi- mum ImpactCom- pression parallelpression perpen- dicularShear parallel toTension perpen- dicularSide hard- Common speciesnamesMoisture contentSpecific gravity brupture (kPa)elasticityc (MPa)load (kJ/m3)bending (mm)to grain (kPa)to grain (kPa)grain (kPa)to grain (kPa)ness (N) Oak, red—con. Willow Green 0.56 51,000 8,900 61 890 20,700 4,200 8,100 5,200 4,400 12% 0.69 100,000 13,100 101 1,070 48,500 7,800 11,400 — 6,500 Oak, white Bur Green 0.58 50,000 6,100 74 1,120 22,700 4,700 9,300 5,500 4,900 12% 0.64 71,000 7,100 68 740 41,800 8,300 12,500 4,700 6,100 Chestnut Green 0.57 55,000 9,400 65 890 24,300 3,700 8,300 4,800 4,000 12% 0.66 92,000 11,000 76 1,020 47,100 5,800 10,300 — 5,000 Live Green 0.80 82,000 10,900 85 — 37,400 14,100 15,200 — — 12% 0.88 127,000 13,700 130 — 61,400 19,600 18,300 — — Overcup Green 0.57 55,000 7,900 87 1,120 23,200 3,700 9,100 5,000 4,300 12% 0.63 87,000 9,800 108 970 42,700 5,600 13,800 6,500 5,300 Post Green 0.60 56,000 7,500 76 1,120 24,000 5,900 8,800 5,400 5,000 12% 0.67 91,000 10,400 91 1,170 45,300 9,900 12,700 5,400 6,000 Swamp chestnut Green 0.60 59,000 9,300 88 1,140 24,400 3,900 8,700 4,600 4,900 12% 0.67 96,000 12,200 83 1,040 50,100 7,700 13,700 4,800 5,500 Swamp white Green 0.64 68,000 11,000 100 1,270 30,100 5,200 9,000 5,900 5,200 12% 0.72 122,000 14,100 132 1,240 59,300 8,200 13,800 5,700 7,200 White Green 0.60 57,000 8,600 80 1,070 24,500 4,600 8,600 5,300 4,700 12% 0.68 105,000 12,300 102 940 51,300 7,400 13,800 5,500 6,000 Sassafras Green 0.42 41,000 6,300 49 — 18,800 2,600 6,600 — — 12% 0.46 62,000 7,700 60 — 32,800 5,900 8,500 — — Sweetgum Green 0.46 49,000 8,300 70 910 21,000 2,600 6,800 3,700 2,700 12% 0.52 86,000 11,300 82 810 43,600 4,300 11,000 5,200 3,800 Sycamore, American Green 0.46 45,000 7,300 52 660 20,100 2,500 6,900 4,300 2,700 12% 0.49 69,000 9,800 59 660 37,100 4,800 10,100 5,000 3,400 Tanoak Green 0.58 72,000 10,700 92 — 32,100 — — — — 1 2 %— — — ——— —— — — Tupelo Black Green 0.46 48,000 7,100 55 760 21,000 3,300 7,600 3,900 2,800 12% 0.50 66,000 8,300 43 560 38,100 6,400 9,200 3,400 3,600 Water Green 0.46 50,000 7,200 57 760 23,200 3,300 8,200 4,100 3,200 12% 0.50 66,000 8,700 48 580 40,800 6,000 11,000 4,800 3,900 Walnut, black Green 0.51 66,000 9,800 101 940 29,600 3,400 8,400 3,900 4,000 12% 0.55 101,000 11,600 74 860 52,300 7,000 9,400 4,800 4,500 Willow, black Green 0.36 33,000 5,400 76 — 14,100 1,200 4,700 — — 12% 0.39 54,000 7,000 61 — 28,300 3,000 8,600 — — Yellow-poplar Green 0.40 41,000 8,400 52 660 18,300 1,900 5,400 3,500 2,000 12% 0.42 70,000 10,900 61 610 38,200 3,400 8,200 3,700 2,400 Softwoods Baldcypress Green 0.42 46,000 8,100 46 640 24,700 2,800 5,600 2,100 1,700 12% 0.46 73,000 9,900 57 610 43,900 5,000 6,900 1,900 2,300 Cedar Atlantic white Green 0.31 32,000 5,200 41 460 16,500 1,700 4,800 1,200 1,300 12% 0.32 47,000 6,400 28 330 32,400 2,800 5,500 1,500 1,600 Eastern redcedar Green 0.44 48,000 4,500 103 890 24,600 4,800 7,000 2,300 2,900 12% 0.47 61,000 6,100 57 560 41,500 6,300 — — 4,000 Incense Green 0.35 43,000 5,800 44 430 21,700 2,600 5,700 1,900 1,700 12% 0.37 55,000 7,200 37 430 35,900 4,100 6,100 1,900 2,100 Northern white Green 0.29 29,000 4,400 39 380 13,700 1,600 4,300 1,700 1,000 12% 0.31 45,000 5,500 33 300 27,300 2,100 5,900 1,700 1,400 4–7Table 4–3a. Strength properties of some commercially important woods grown in the United States (metric)a—con. Static bending Com- Modulus ofModulus ofWork to maxi- mum ImpactCom- pression parallelpression perpen- dicularShear parallel toTension perpen- dicularSide hard- Common speciesnamesMoisture contentSpecific gravity brupture (kPa)elasticityc (MPa)load (kJ/m3)bending (mm)to grain (kPa)to grain (kPa)grain (kPa)to grain (kPa)ness (N) Cedar—con. Port-Orford Green 0.39 45,000 9,000 51 530 21,600 2,100 5,800 1,200 1,700 12% 0.43 88,000 11,700 63 710 43,100 5,000 9,400 2,800 2,800 Western redcedar Green 0.31 35,900 6,500 34 430 19,100 1,700 5,300 1,600 1,200 12% 0.32 51,700 7,700 40 430 31,400 3,200 6,800 1,500 1,600 Yellow Green 0.42 44,000 7,900 63 690 21,000 2,400 5,800 2,300 2,000 12% 0.44 77,000 9,800 72 740 43,500 4,300 7,800 2,500 2,600 Douglas-fird Coast Green 0.45 53,000 10,800 52 660 26,100 2,600 6,200 2,100 2,200 12% 0.48 85,000 13,400 68 790 49,900 5,500 7,800 2,300 3,200 Interior West Green 0.46 53,000 10,400 50 660 26,700 2,900 6,500 2,000 2,300 12% 0.50 87,000 12,600 73 810 51,200 5,200 8,900 2,400 2,900 Interior North Green 0.45 51,000 9,700 56 560 23,900 2,500 6,600 2,300 1,900 12% 0.48 90,000 12,300 72 660 47,600 5,300 9,700 2,700 2,700 Interior South Green 0.43 47,000 8,000 55 380 21,400 2,300 6,600 1,700 1,600 12% 0.46 82,000 10,300 62 510 43,000 5,100 10,400 2,300 2,300 Fir Balsam Green 0.33 38,000 8,600 32 410 18,100 1,300 4,600 1,200 1,300 12% 0.35 63,000 10,000 35 510 36,400 2,800 6,500 1,200 1,800 California red Green 0.36 40,000 8,100 44 530 19,000 2,300 5,300 2,600 1,600 12% 0.38 72,400 10,300 61 610 37,600 4,200 7,200 2,700 2,200 Grand Green 0.35 40,000 8,600 39 560 20,300 1,900 5,100 1,700 1,600 12% 0.37 61,400 10,800 52 710 36,500 3,400 6,200 1,700 2,200 Noble Green 0.37 43,000 9,500 41 480 20,800 1,900 5,500 1,600 1,300 12% 0.39 74,000 11,900 61 580 42,100 3,600 7,200 1,500 1,800 Pacific silver Green 0.40 44,000 9,800 41 530 21,600 1,500 5,200 1,700 1,400 12% 0.43 75,800 12,100 64 610 44,200 3,100 8,400 — 1,900 Subalpine Green 0.31 34,000 7,200 — — 15,900 1,300 4,800 — 1,200 12% 0.32 59,000 8,900 — — 33,500 2,700 7,400 — 1,600 White Green 0.37 41,000 8,000 39 560 20,000 1,900 5,200 2,100 1,500 12% 0.39 68,000 10,300 50 510 40,000 3,700 7,600 2,100 2,100 Hemlock Eastern Green 0.38 44,000 7,400 46 530 21,200 2,500 5,900 1,600 1,800 12% 0.40 61,000 8,300 47 530 37,300 4,500 7,300 — 2,200 Mountain Green 0.42 43,000 7,200 76 810 19,900 2,600 6,400 2,300 2,100 12% 0.45 79,000 9,200 72 810 44,400 5,900 10,600 — 3,000 Western Green 0.42 46,000 9,000 48 560 23,200 1,900 5,900 2,000 1,800 12% 0.45 78,000 11,300 57 580 49,000 3,800 8,600 2,300 2,400 Larch, western Green 0.48 53,000 10,100 71 740 25,900 2,800 6,000 2,300 2,300 12% 0.52 90,000 12,900 87 890 52,500 6,400 9,400 3,000 3,700 Pine Eastern white Green 0.34 34,000 6,800 36 430 16,800 1,500 4,700 1,700 1,300 12% 0.35 59,000 8,500 47 460 33,100 3,000 6,200 2,100 1,700 Jack Green 0.40 41,000 7,400 50 660 20,300 2,100 5,200 2,500 1,800 12% 0.43 68,000 9,300 57 690 39,000 4,000 8,100 2,900 2,500 Loblolly Green 0.47 50,000 9,700 57 760 24,200 2,700 5,900 1,800 2,000 12% 0.51 88,000 12,300 72 760 49,200 5,400 9,600 3,200 3,100 Lodgepole Green 0.38 38,000 7,400 39 510 18,000 1,700 4,700 1,500 1,500 12% 0.41 65,000 9,200 47 510 37,000 4,200 6,100 2,000 2,100 Longleaf Green 0.54 59,000 11,000 61 890 29,800 3,300 7,200 2,300 2,600 12% 0.59 100,000 13,700 81 860 58,400 6,600 10,400 3,200 3,900 Pitch Green 0.47 47,000 8,300 63 — 20,300 2,500 5,900 — — 12% 0.52 74,000 9,900 63 — 41,000 5,600 9,400 — — 4–8Table 4–3a. Strength properties of some commercially important woods grown in the United States (metric)a—con. Static bending Com- Modulus ofModulus ofWork to maxi- mum ImpactCom- pression parallelpression perpen- dicularShear parallel toTension perpen- dicularSide hard- Common speciesnamesMoisture contentSpecific gravity brupture (kPa)elasticityc (MPa)load (kJ/m3)bending (mm)to grain (kPa)to grain (kPa)grain (kPa)to grain (kPa)ness (N) Pine—con. Pond Green 0.51 51,000 8,800 52 — 25,200 3,000 6,500 — — 12% 0.56 80,000 12,100 59 — 52,000 6,300 9,500 — — Ponderosa Green 0.38 35,000 6,900 36 530 16,900 1,900 4,800 2,100 1,400 12% 0.40 65,000 8,900 49 480 36,700 4,000 7,800 2,900 2,000 Red Green 0.41 40,000 8,800 42 660 18,800 1,800 4,800 2,100 1,500 12% 0.46 76,000 11,200 68 660 41,900 4,100 8,400 3,200 2,500 Sand Green 0.46 52,000 7,000 66 — 23,700 3,100 7,900 — — 12% 0.48 80,000 9,700 66 — 47,700 5,800 — — — Shortleaf Green 0.47 51,000 9,600 57 760 24,300 2,400 6,300 2,200 2,000 12% 0.51 90,000 12,100 76 840 50,100 5,700 9,600 3,200 3,100 Slash Green 0.54 60,000 10,500 66 — 26,300 3,700 6,600 — — 12% 0.59 112,000 13,700 91 — 56,100 7,000 11,600 — — Spruce Green 0.41 41,000 6,900 — — 19,600 1,900 6,200 — 2,000 12% 0.44 72,000 8,500 — — 39,000 5,000 10,300 — 2,900 Sugar Green 0.34 34,000 7,100 37 430 17,000 1,400 5,000 1,900 1,200 12% 0.36 57,000 8,200 38 460 30,800 3,400 7,800 2,400 1,700 Virginia Green 0.45 50,000 8,400 75 860 23,600 2,700 6,100 2,800 2,400 12% 0.48 90,000 10,500 94 810 46,300 6,300 9,300 2,600 3,300 Western white Green 0.36 32,000 8,200 34 480 16,800 1,300 4,700 1,800 1,200 12% 0.38 67,000 10,100 61 580 34,700 3,200 7,200 — 1,900 Redwood Old-growth Green 0.38 52,000 8,100 51 530 29,000 2,900 5,500 1,800 1,800 12% 0.40 69,000 9,200 48 480 42,400 4,800 6,500 1,700 2,100 Young-growth Green 0.34 41,000 6,600 39 410 21,400 1,900 6,100 2,100 1,600 12% 0.35 54,000 7,600 36 380 36,000 3,600 7,600 1,700 1,900 Spruce Black Green 0.38 42,000 9,500 51 610 19,600 1,700 5,100 700 1,600 12% 0.46 74,000 11,100 72 580 41,100 3,800 8,500 — 2,300 Engelmann Green 0.33 32,000 7,100 35 410 15,000 1,400 4,400 1,700 1,150 12% 0.35 64,000 8,900 44 460 30,900 2,800 8,300 2,400 1,750 Red Green 0.37 41,000 9,200 48 460 18,800 1,800 5,200 1,500 1,600 12% 0.40 74,000 11,100 58 640 38,200 3,800 8,900 2,400 2,200 Sitka Green 0.33 34,000 7,900 43 610 16,200 1,400 4,400 1,700 1,600 12% 0.36 65,000 9,900 65 640 35,700 3,000 6,700 2,600 2,300 White Green 0.37 39,000 7,400 41 560 17,700 1,700 4,800 1,500 1,400 12% 0.40 68,000 9,200 53 510 37,700 3,200 7,400 2,500 2,100 Tamarack Green 0.49 50,000 8,500 50 710 24,000 2,700 5,900 1,800 1,700 12% 0.53 80,000 11,300 49 580 49,400 5,500 8,800 2,800 2,600 aResults of tests on small clear specimens in the green and air-dried conditions, converted to metric units directly from Table 4–3b. Definition of properties: impact bending is height of drop that causes complete failure, using 0.71-kg (50-lb) hammer; compression parallel to grain is also called maximum crushing strength; compression perpendicular to grain is fiber stress at proportional limit; shear is maximum shearing strength; tension is maximum tensile strength; and side hardness is hardness measured when load is perpendicular to grain. bSpecific gravity is based on weight when ovendry and volume when green or at 12% moisture content. cModulus of elasticity measured from a simply supported, center-loaded beam, on a span depth ratio of 14/1. To correct for shear deflection, the modulus can be increased by 10%. dCoast Douglas-fir is defined as Douglas-fir growing in Oregon and Washington State west of the Cascade Mountains summit. Interior West includes California and all counties in Oregon and Washington east of, but adjacent to, the Cascade summit; Interior North, the remainder of Oregon and Washington plus Idaho, Montana, and Wyoming; and Interior South, Utah, Colorado, Arizona, and New Mexico. 4–9Table 4–3b. Strength properties of some commercially important woods grown in the United States (inch –pound)a Static bending Com- Modulus ofModulus ofWork to maximum ImpactCom- pression parallelpression perpen- dicularShear parallel toTension perpen- dicularSide hard- Common speciesnamesMoisture contentSpecific gravity brupture(lbf/in 2)elasticityc (·106 lbf/in2)load (in-lbf/in3)bending (in.)to grain (lbf/in2)to grain (lbf/in2)grain (lbf/in2)to grain (lbf/in2)ness (lbf) Hardwoods Alder, red Green 0.37 6,500 1.17 8.0 22 2,960 250 770 390 440 12% 0.41 9,800 1.38 8.4 20 5,820 440 1,080 420 590 Ash Black Green 0.45 6,000 1.04 12.1 33 2,300 350 860 490 520 12% 0.49 12,600 1.60 14.9 35 5,970 760 1,570 700 850 Blue Green 0.53 9,600 1.24 14.7 — 4,180 810 1,540 — — 12% 0.58 13,800 1.40 14.4 — 6,980 1,420 2,030 — — Green Green 0.53 9,500 1.40 11.8 35 4,200 730 1,260 590 870 12% 0.56 14,100 1.66 13.4 32 7,080 1,310 1,910 700 1,200 Oregon Green 0.50 7,600 1.13 12.2 39 3,510 530 1,190 590 790 12% 0.55 12,700 1.36 14.4 33 6,040 1,250 1,790 720 1,160 White Green 0.55 9,500 1.44 15.7 38 3,990 670 1,350 590 960 12% 0.60 15,000 1.74 16.6 43 7,410 1,160 1,910 940 1,320 Aspen Bigtooth Green 0.36 5,400 1.12 5.7 — 2,500 210 730 — — 12% 0.39 9,100 1.43 7.7 — 5,300 450 1,080 — — Quaking Green 0.35 5,100 0.86 6.4 22 2,140 180 660 230 300 12% 0.38 8,400 1.18 7.6 21 4,250 370 850 260 350 Basswood, American Green 0.32 5,000 1.04 5.3 16 2,220 170 600 280 250 12% 0.37 8,700 1.46 7.2 16 4,730 370 990 350 410 Beech, American Green 0.56 8,600 1.38 11.9 43 3,550 540 1,290 720 850 12% 0.64 14,900 1.72 15.1 41 7,300 1,010 2,0101,010 1,300 Birch Paper Green 0.48 6,400 1.17 16.2 49 2,360 270 840 380 560 12% 0.55 12,300 1.59 16.0 34 5,690 600 1,210 — 910 Sweet Green 0.60 9,400 1.65 15.7 48 3,740 470 1,240 430 970 12% 0.65 16,900 2.17 18.0 47 8,540 1,080 2,240 950 1,470 Yellow Green 0.55 8,300 1.50 16.1 48 3,380 430 1,110 430 780 12% 0.62 16,600 2.01 20.8 55 8,170 970 1,880 920 1,260 Butternut Green 0.36 5,400 0.97 8.2 24 2,420 220 760 430 390 12% 0.38 8,100 1.18 8.2 24 5,110 460 1,170 440 490 Cherry, black Green 0.47 8,000 1.31 12.8 33 3,540 360 1,130 570 660 12% 0.50 12,300 1.49 11.4 29 7,110 690 1,700 560 950 Chestnut, American Green 0.40 5,600 0.93 7.0 24 2,470 310 800 440 420 12% 0.43 8,600 1.23 6.5 19 5,320 620 1,080 460 540 Cottonwood Balsam, poplar Green 0.31 3,900 0.75 4.2 — 1,690 140 500 — — 12% 0.34 6,800 1.10 5.0 — 4,020 300 790 — — Black Green 0.31 4,900 1.08 5.0 20 2,200 160 610 270 250 12% 0.35 8,500 1.27 6.7 22 4,500 300 1,040 330 350 Eastern Green 0.37 5,300 1.01 7.3 21 2,280 200 680 410 340 12% 0.40 8,500 1.37 7.4 20 4,910 380 930 580 430 Elm American Green 0.46 7,200 1.11 11.8 38 2,910 360 1,000 590 620 12% 0.50 11,800 1.34 13.0 39 5,520 690 1,510 660 830 Rock Green 0.57 9,500 1.19 19.8 54 3,780 610 1,270 — 940 12% 0.63 14,800 1.54 19.2 56 7,050 1,230 1,920 — 1,320 Slippery Green 0.48 8,000 1.23 15.4 47 3,320 420 1,110 640 660 12% 0.53 13,000 1.49 16.9 45 6,360 820 1,630 530 860 Hackberry Green 0.49 6,500 0.95 14.5 48 2,650 400 1,070 630 700 12% 0.53 11,000 1.19 12.8 43 5,440 890 1,590 580 880 4–10Table 4–3b. Strength properties of some commercially important woods grown in the United States (inch –pound)a—con. Static bending Com- Modulus ofModulus ofWork to maximum ImpactCom- pression parallelpression perpen- dicularShear parallel toTension perpen- dicularSide hard- Common speciesnamesMoisture contentSpecific gravity brupture(lbf/in 2)elasticityc (·106 lbf/in2)load (in-lbf/in3)bending (in.)to grain (lbf/in2)to grain (lbf/in2)grain (lbf/in2)to grain (lbf/in2)ness (lbf) Hickory, pecan Bitternut Green 0.60 10,300 1.40 20.0 66 4,570 800 1,240 — — 12% 0.66 17,100 1.79 18.2 66 9,040 1,680 — — — Nutmeg Green 0.56 9,100 1.29 22.8 54 3,980 760 1,030 — — 12% 0.60 16,600 1.70 25.1 — 6,910 1,570 — — — Pecan Green 0.60 9,800 1.37 14.6 53 3,990 780 1,480 680 1,310 12% 0.66 13,700 1.73 13.8 44 7,850 1,720 2,080 — 1,820 Water Green 0.61 10,700 1.56 18.8 56 4,660 880 1,440 — — 12% 0.62 17,800 2.02 19.3 53 8,600 1,550 — — — Hickory, true Mockernut Green 0.64 11,100 1.57 26.1 88 4,480 810 1,280 — — 12% 0.72 19,200 2.22 22.6 77 8,940 1,730 1,740 — — Pignut Green 0.66 11,700 1.65 31.7 89 4,810 920 1,370 — — 12% 0.75 20,100 2.26 30.4 74 9,190 1,980 2,150 — — Shagbark Green 0.64 11,000 1.57 23.7 74 4,580 840 1,520 — — 12% 0.72 20,200 2.16 25.8 67 9,210 1,760 2,430 — — Shellbark Green 0.62 10,500 1.34 29.9 104 3,920 810 1,190 — — 12% 0.69 18,100 1.89 23.6 88 8,000 1,800 2,110 — — Honeylocust Green 0.60 10,200 1.29 12.6 47 4,420 1,150 1,660 930 1,390 12% — 14,700 1.63 13.3 47 7,500 1,840 2,250 900 1,580 Locust, black Green 0.66 13,800 1.85 15.4 44 6,800 1,160 1,760 770 1,570 12% 0.69 19,400 2.05 18.4 57 10,180 1,830 2,480 640 1,700 Magnolia Cucumbertree Green 0.44 7,400 1.56 10.0 30 3,140 330 990 440 520 12% 0.48 12,300 1.82 12.2 35 6,310 570 1,340 660 700 Southern Green 0.46 6,800 1.11 15.4 54 2,700 460 1,040 610 740 12% 0.50 11,200 1.40 12.8 29 5,460 860 1,530 740 1,020 Maple Bigleaf Green 0.44 7,400 1.10 8.7 23 3,240 450 1,110 600 620 12% 0.48 10,700 1.45 7.8 28 5,950 750 1,730 540 850 Black Green 0.52 7,900 1.33 12.8 48 3,270 600 1,130 720 840 12% 0.57 13,300 1.62 12.5 40 6,680 1,020 1,820 670 1,180 Red Green 0.49 7,700 1.39 11.4 32 3,280 400 1,150 — 700 12% 0.54 13,400 1.64 12.5 32 6,540 1,000 1,850 — 950 Silver Green 0.44 5,800 0.94 11.0 29 2,490 370 1,050 560 590 12% 0.47 8,900 1.14 8.3 25 5,220 740 1,480 500 700 Sugar Green 0.56 9,400 1.55 13.3 40 4,020 640 1,460 — 970 12% 0.63 15,800 1.83 16.5 39 7,830 1,470 2,330 — 1,450 Oak, red Black Green 0.56 8,200 1.18 12.2 40 3,470 710 1,220 — 1,060 12% 0.61 13,900 1.64 13.7 41 6,520 930 1,910 — 1,210 Cherrybark Green 0.61 10,800 1.79 14.7 54 4,620 760 1,320 800 1,240 12% 0.68 18,100 2.28 18.3 49 8,740 1,250 2,000 840 1,480 Laurel Green 0.56 7900 1.39 11.2 39 3,170 570 1,180 770 1,000 12% 0.63 12,600 1.69 11.8 39 6,980 1,060 1,830 790 1,210 Northern red Green 0.56 8300 1.35 13.2 44 3,440 610 1,210 750 1,000 12% 0.63 14,300 1.82 14.5 43 6,760 1,010 1,780 800 1,290 Pin Green 0.58 8300 1.32 14.0 48 3,680 720 1,290 800 1,070 12% 0.63 14000 1.73 14.8 45 6,820 1,020 2,080 1,050 1,510 Scarlet Green 0.60 10,400 1.48 15.0 54 4,090 830 1,410 700 1,200 12% 0.67 17400 1.91 20.5 53 8,330 1,120 1,890 870 1,400 Southern red Green 0.52 6,900 1.14 8.0 29 3,030 550 930 480 860 12% 0.59 10,900 1.49 9.4 26 6,090 870 1,390 510 1,060 4–11Table 4–3b. Strength properties of some commercially important woods grown in the United States (inch –pound)a—con. Static bending Com- Modulus ofModulus ofWork to maximum ImpactCom- pression parallelpression perpen- dicularShear parallel toTension perpen- dicularSide hard- Common speciesnamesMoisture contentSpecific gravity brupture(lbf/in 2)elasticityc (·106 lbf/in2)load (in-lbf/in3)bending (in.)to grain (lbf/in2)to grain (lbf/in2)grain (lbf/in2)to grain (lbf/in2)ness (lbf) Oak, red—con. Water Green 0.56 8,900 1.55 11.1 39 3,740 620 1,240 820 1,010 12% 0.63 15,400 2.02 21.5 44 6,770 1,020 2,020 920 1,190 Willow Green 0.56 7400 1.29 8.8 35 3,000 610 1,180 760 980 12% 0.69 14,500 1.90 14.6 42 7,040 1,130 1,650 — 1,460 Oak, white Bur Green 0.58 7,200 0.88 10.7 44 3,290 680 1,350 800 1,110 12% 0.64 10,300 1.03 9.8 29 6,060 1,200 1,820 680 1,370 Chestnut Green 0.57 8,000 1.37 9.4 35 3,520 530 1,210 690 890 12% 0.66 13,300 1.59 11.0 40 6,830 840 1,490 — 1,130 Live Green 0.80 11,900 1.58 12.3 — 5,430 2,040 2,210 — — 12% 0.88 18,400 1.98 18.9 — 8,900 2,840 2,660 — — Overcup Green 0.57 8,000 1.15 12.6 44 3,370 540 1,320 730 960 12% 0.63 12,600 1.42 15.7 38 6,200 810 2,000 940 1,190 Post Green 0.60 8,100 1.09 11.0 44 3,480 860 1,280 790 1,130 12% 0.67 13,200 1.51 13.2 46 6,600 1,430 1,840 780 1,360 Swamp chestnut Green 0.60 8,500 1.35 12.8 45 3,540 570 1,260 670 1,110 12% 0.67 13,900 1.77 12.0 41 7,270 1,110 1,990 690 1,240 Swamp white Green 0.64 9,900 1.59 14.5 50 4,360 760 1,300 860 1,160 12% 0.72 17,700 2.05 19.2 49 8,600 1,190 2,000 830 1,620 White Green 0.60 8,300 1.25 11.6 42 3,560 670 1,250 770 1,060 12% 0.68 15,200 1.78 14.8 37 7,440 1,070 2,000 800 1,360 Sassafras Green 0.42 6,000 0.91 7.1 — 2,730 370 950 — — 12% 0.46 9,000 1.12 8.7 — 4,760 850 1,240 — — Sweetgum Green 0.46 7,100 1.20 10.1 36 3,040 370 990 540 600 12% 0.52 12,500 1.64 11.9 32 6,320 620 1,600 760 850 Sycamore, American Green 0.46 6,500 1.06 7.5 26 2,920 360 1,000 630 610 12% 0.49 10,000 1.42 8.5 26 5,380 700 1,470 720 770 Tanoak Green 0.58 10,500 1.55 13.4 — 4,650 — — — — 12% — — — — — — — — — — Tupelo Black Green 0.46 7,000 1.03 8.0 30 3,040 480 1,100 570 640 12% 0.50 9,600 1.20 6.2 22 5,520 930 1,340 500 810 Water Green 0.46 7,300 1.05 8.3 30 3,370 480 1,190 600 710 12% 0.50 9,600 1.26 6.9 23 5,920 870 1,590 700 880 Walnut, Black Green 0.51 9,500 1.42 14.6 37 4,300 490 1,220 570 900 12% 0.55 14,600 1.68 10.7 34 7,580 1,010 1,370 690 1,010 Willow, Black Green 0.36 4,800 0.79 11.0 — 2,040 180 680 — — 12% 0.39 7,800 1.01 8.8 — 4,100 430 1,250 — — Yellow-poplar Green 0.40 6,000 1.22 7.5 26 2,660 270 790 510 440 12% 0.42 10,100 1.58 8.8 24 5,540 500 1,190 540 540 Softwoods Baldcypress Green 0.42 6,600 1.18 6.6 25 3,580 400 810 300 390 12% 0.46 10,600 1.44 8.2 24 6,360 730 1,000 270 510 Cedar Atlantic white Green 0.31 4,700 0.75 5.9 18 2,390 240 690 180 290 12% 0.32 6,800 0.93 4.1 13 4,700 410 800 220 350 Eastern redcedar Green 0.44 7,000 0.65 15.0 35 3,570 700 1,010 330 650 12% 0.47 8,800 0.88 8.3 22 6,020 920 — — — Incense Green 0.35 6,200 0.84 6.4 17 3,150 370 830 280 390 12% 0.37 8,000 1.04 5.4 17 5,200 590 880 270 470 Northern White Green 0.29 4,200 0.64 5.7 15 1,990 230 620 240 230 12% 0.31 6,500 0.80 4.8 12 3,960 310 850 240 320 4–12Table 4–3b. Strength properties of some commercially important woods grown in the United States (inch –pound)a—con. Static bending Com- Modulus ofModulus ofWork to maximum ImpactCom- pression parallelpression perpen- dicularShear parallel toTension perpen- dicularSide hard- Common speciesnamesMoisture contentSpecific gravity brupture(lbf/in 2)elasticityc (·106 lbf/in2)load (in-lbf/in3)bending (in.)to grain (lbf/in2)to grain (lbf/in2)grain (lbf/in2)to grain (lbf/in2)ness (lbf) Cedar—con. Port-Orford Green 0.39 6,600 1.30 7.4 21 3,140 300 840 180 380 12% 0.43 12,700 1.70 9.1 28 6,250 720 1,370 400 630 Western redcedar Green 0.31 5,200 0.94 5.0 17 2,770 240 770 230 260 12% 0.32 7,500 1.11 5.8 17 4,560 460 990 220 350 Yellow Green 0.42 6,400 1.14 9.2 27 3,050 350 840 330 440 12% 0.44 11,100 1.42 10.4 29 6,310 620 1,130 360 580 Douglas-fird Coast Green 0.45 7,700 1.56 7.6 26 3,780 380 900 300 500 12% 0.48 12,400 1.95 9.9 31 7,230 800 1,130 340 710 Interior West Green 0.46 7,700 1.51 7.2 26 3,870 420 940 290 510 12% 0.50 12,600 1.83 10.6 32 7,430 760 1,290 350 660 Interior North Green 0.45 7,400 1.41 8.1 22 3,470 360 950 340 420 12% 0.48 13,100 1.79 10.5 26 6,900 770 1,400 390 600 Interior South Green 0.43 6,800 1.16 8.0 15 3,110 340 950 250 360 12% 0.46 11,900 1.49 9.0 20 6,230 740 1,510 330 510 Fir Balsam Green 0.33 5,500 1.25 4.7 16 2,630 190 662 180 290 12% 0.35 9,200 1.45 5.1 20 5,280 404 944 180 400 California red Green 0.36 5,800 1.17 6.4 21 2,760 330 770 380 360 12% 0.38 10,500 1.50 8.9 24 5,460 610 1,040 390 500 Grand Green 0.35 5,800 1.25 5.6 22 2,940 270 740 240 360 12% 0.37 8,900 1.57 7.5 28 5,290 500 900 240 490 Noble Green 0.37 6,200 1.38 6.0 19 3,010 270 800 230 290 12% 0.39 10,700 1.72 8.8 23 6,100 520 1,050 220 410 Pacific silver Green 0.40 6,400 1.42 6.0 21 3,140 220 750 240 310 12% 0.43 11,000 1.76 9.3 24 6,410 450 1,220 — 430 Subalpine Green 0.31 4,900 1.05 — — 2,300 190 700 — 260 12% 0.32 8,600 1.29 — — 4,860 390 1,070 — 350 White Green 0.37 5,900 1.16 5.6 22 2,900 280 760 300 340 12% 0.39 9,800 1.50 7.2 20 5,800 530 1,100 300 480 Hemlock Eastern Green 0.38 6,400 1.07 6.7 21 3,080 360 850 230 400 12% 0.40 8,900 1.20 6.8 21 5,410 650 1,060 — 500 Mountain Green 0.42 6,300 1.04 11.0 32 2,880 370 930 330 470 12% 0.45 11,500 1.33 10.4 32 6,440 860 1,540 — 680 Western Green 0.42 6,600 1.31 6.9 22 3,360 280 860 290 410 12% 0.45 11,300 1.63 8.3 23 7,200 550 1,290 340 540 Larch, western Green 0.48 7,700 1.46 10.3 29 3,760 400 870 330 510 12% 0.52 13,000 1.87 12.6 35 7,620 930 1,360 430 830 Pine Eastern white Green 0.34 4,900 0.99 5.2 17 2,440 220 680 250 290 12% 0.35 8,600 1.24 6.8 18 4,800 440 900 310 380 Jack Green 0.40 6,000 1.07 7.2 26 2,950 300 750 360 400 12% 0.43 9,900 1.35 8.3 27 5,660 580 1,170 420 570 Loblolly Green 0.47 7,300 1.40 8.2 30 3,510 390 860 260 450 12% 0.51 12,800 1.79 10.4 30 7,130 790 1,390 470 690 Lodgepole Green 0.38 5,500 1.08 5.6 20 2,610 250 680 220 330 12% 0.41 9,400 1.34 6.8 20 5,370 610 880 290 480 Longleaf Green 0.554 8,500 1.59 8.9 35 4,320 480 1,040 330 590 12% 0.59 14,500 1.98 11.8 34 8,470 960 1,510 470 870 Pitch Green 0.47 6,800 1.20 9.2 — 2,950 360 860 — — 12% 0.52 10,800 1.43 9.2 — 5,940 820 1,360 — — 4–13Table 4–3b. Strength properties of some commercially important woods grown in the United States (inch –pound)a—con. Static bending Com- Modulus ofModulus ofWork to maximum ImpactCom- pression parallelpression perpen- dicularShear parallel toTension perpen- dicularSide hard- Common speciesnamesMoisture contentSpecific gravity brupture(lbf/in 2)elasticityc (·106 lbf/in2)load (in-lbf/in3)bending (in.)to grain (lbf/in2)to grain (lbf/in2)grain (lbf/in2)to grain (lbf/in2)ness (lbf) Pine—con. Pond Green 0.51 7,400 1.28 7.5 — 3,660 440 940 — — 12% 0.56 11,600 1.75 8.6 — 7,540 910 1,380 — — Ponderosa Green 0.38 5,100 1.00 5.2 21 2,450 280 700 310 320 12% 0.40 9,400 1.29 7.1 19 5,320 580 1,130 420 460 Red Green 0.41 5,800 1.28 6.1 26 2,730 260 690 300 340 12% 0.46 11,000 1.63 9.9 26 6,070 600 1,210 460 560 Sand Green 0.46 7,500 1.02 9.6 — 3,440 450 1,140 — — 12% 0.48 11,600 1.41 9.6 — 6,920 836 — — — Shortleaf Green 0.47 7,400 1.39 8.2 30 3,530 350 910 320 440 12% 0.51 13,100 1.75 11.0 33 7,270 820 1,390 470 690 Slash Green 0.54 8,700 1.53 9.6 — 3,820 530 960 — — 12% 0.59 16,300 1.98 13.2 — 8,140 1020 1,680 — — Spruce Green 0.41 6,000 1.00 — — 2,840 280 900 — 450 12% 0.44 10,400 1.23 — — 5,650 730 1,490 — 660 Sugar Green 0.34 4,900 1.03 5.4 17 2,460 210 720 270 270 12% 0.36 8,200 1.19 5.5 18 4,460 500 1,130 350 380 Virginia Green 0.45 7,300 1.22 10.9 34 3,420 390 890 400 540 12% 0.48 13,000 1.52 13.7 32 6,710 910 1,350 380 740 Western white Green 0.35 4,700 1.19 5.0 19 2,430 190 680 260 260 12% 0.38 9,700 1.46 8.8 23 5,040 470 1,040 — 420 Redwood Old-growth Green 0.38 7,500 1.18 7.4 21 4,200 420 800 260 410 12% 0.40 10,000 1.34 6.9 19 6,150 700 940 240 480 Young-growth Green 0.34 5,900 0.96 5.7 16 3,110 270 890 300 350 12% 0.35 7,900 1.10 5.2 15 5,220 520 1,110 250 420 Spruce Black Green 0.38 6,100 1.38 7.4 24 2,840 240 739 100 370 12% 0.42 10,800 1.61 10.5 23 5,960 550 1,230 — 520 Engelmann Green 0.33 4,700 1.03 5.1 16 2,180 200 640 240 260 12% 0.35 9,300 1.30 6.4 18 4,480 410 1,200 350 390 Red Green 0.37 6,000 1.33 6.9 18 2,720 260 750 220 350 12% 0.40 10,800 1.61 8.4 25 5,540 550 1,290 350 490 Sitka Green 0.37 5,700 1.23 6.3 24 2,670 280 760 250 350 12% 0.40 10,200 1.57 9.4 25 5,610 580 1,150 370 510 White Green 0.33 5,000 1.14 6.0 22 2,350 210 640 220 320 12% 0.36 9,400 1.43 7.7 20 5,180 430 970 360 480 Tamarack Green 0.49 7,200 1.24 7.2 28 3,480 390 860 260 380 12% 0.53 11,600 1.64 7.1 23 7,160 800 1,280 400 590 aResults of tests on small clear specimens in the green and air-dried conditions. Definition of properties: impact bending is height of drop that causes complete failure, using 0.71-kg (50-lb) hammer; compression parallel to grain is also called maxi- mum crushing strength; compression perpendicular to grain is fiber stress at proportional limit; shear is maximum shearing strength; tension is maximum tensile strength; and side hardness is hardness measured when load is perpendicular to grain. bSpecific gravity is based on weight when ovendry and volume when green or at 12% moisture content. cModulus of elasticity measured from a simply supported, center-loaded beam, on a span depth ratio of 14/1. To correct for shear deflection, the modulus can be increased by 10%. dCoast Douglas-fir is defined as Douglas-fir growing in Oregon and Washington State west of the Cascade Mountains summit. Interior West includes California and all counties in Oregon and Washington east of, but adjacent to, the Cascade summit; Interior North, the remainder of Oregon and Washington plus Idaho, Montana, and Wyoming; and Interior South, Utah, Colorado, Arizona, and New Mexico. 4–14Table 4–4a. Mechanical properties of some commercially important woods grown in Canada and imported into the United States (metric)a Static bending Compression Compression Shear Common species namesMoisture contentSpecific gravityModulus of rupture (kPa)Modulus of elasticity (MPa)parallel to grain (kPa)perpendicular to grain (kPa)parallel to grain (kPa) Hardwoods Aspen Quaking Green 0.37 38,000 9,000 16,200 1,400 5,000 12% 68,000 11,200 36,300 3,500 6,800 Big-toothed Green 0.39 36,000 7,400 16,500 1,400 5,400 12% 66,000 8,700 32,800 3,200 7,600 Cottonwood Black Green 0.30 28,000 6,700 12,800 700 3,900 12% 49,000 8,800 27,700 1,800 5,900 Eastern Green 0.35 32,000 6,000 13,600 1,400 5,300 12% 52,000 7,800 26,500 3,200 8,000 Balsam, poplar Green 0.37 34,000 7,900 14,600 1,200 4,600 12% 70,000 11,500 34,600 2,900 6,100 Softwoods Cedar Northern white Green 0.30 27,000 3,600 13,000 1,400 4,600 12% 42,000 4,300 24,800 2,700 6,900 Western redcedar Green 0.31 36,000 7,200 19,200 1,900 4,800 12% 54,000 8,200 29,600 3,400 5,600 Yellow Green 0.42 46,000 9,200 22,300 2,400 6,100 12% 80,000 11,000 45,800 4,800 9,200 Douglas-fir Green 0.45 52,000 11,100 24,900 3,200 6,300 12% 88,000 13,600 50,000 6,000 9,500 Fir Subalpine Green 0.33 36,000 8,700 17,200 1,800 4,700 12% 56,000 10,200 36,400 3,700 6,800 Pacific silver Green 0.36 38,000 9,300 19,100 1,600 4,900 12% 69,000 11,300 40,900 3,600 7,500 Balsam Green 0.34 36,000 7,800 16,800 1,600 4,700 12% 59,000 9,600 34,300 3,200 6,300 Hemlock Eastern Green 0.40 47,000 8,800 23,600 2,800 6,300 12% 67,000 9,700 41,200 4,300 8,700 Western Green 0.41 48,000 10,200 24,700 2,600 5,200 12% 81,000 12,300 46,700 4,600 6,500 Larch, western Green 0.55 60,000 11,400 30,500 3,600 6,300 12% 107,000 14,300 61,000 7,300 9,200 Pine Eastern white Green 0.36 35,000 8,100 17,900 1,600 4,400 12% 66,000 9,400 36,000 3,400 6,100 Jack Green 0.42 43,000 8,100 20,300 2,300 5,600 12% 78,000 10,200 40,500 5,700 8,200 Lodgepole Green 0.40 39,000 8,800 19,700 1,900 5,000 12% 76,000 10,900 43,200 3,600 8,500 Ponderosa Green 0.44 39,000 7,800 19,600 2,400 5,000 12% 73,000 9,500 42,300 5,200 7,000 Red Green 0.39 34,000 7,400 16,300 1,900 4,900 12% 70,000 9,500 37,900 5,200 7,500 Western white Green 0.36 33,000 8,200 17,400 1,600 4,500 12% 64,100 10,100 36,100 3,200 6,300 Spruce Black Green 0.41 41,000 9,100 19,000 2,100 5,500 12% 79,000 10,500 41,600 4,300 8,600 Engelmann Green 0.38 39,000 8,600 19,400 1,900 4,800 12% 70,000 10,700 42,400 3,700 7,600 Red Green 0.38 41,000 9,100 19,400 1,900 5,600 12% 71,000 11,000 38,500 3,800 9,200 Sitka Green 0.35 37,000 9,400 17,600 2,000 4,300 12% 70,000 11,200 37,800 4,100 6,800 White Green 0.35 35,000 7,900 17,000 1,600 4,600 12% 63,000 10,000 37,000 3,400 6,800 Tamarack Green 0.48 47,000 8,600 21,600 2,800 6,300 12% 76,000 9,400 44,900 6,200 9,000 aResults of tests on small, clear, straight-grained specimens. Property values based on ASTM Standard D2555–88. Information on additional properties can be obtained from Department of Forestry, Canada, Publication No. 1104. For each species, values in the first line are from tests of green material; those in the second line are adjusted from the green condition to 12% moisture content using dry to green clear wood property ratios as reported in ASTM D2555–88. Specific gravity is based on weight when ovendry and volume when green. 4–15Table 4–4b. Mechanical properties of some commercially important woods grown in Canada and imported into the United States (inch–pound)a Static bending Compression Compression Shear Common species namesMoisture contentSpecific gravityModulus of rupture (lbf/in2)Modulus of elas- ticity (·106 lbf/in2)parallel to grain (lbf/in2)perpendicular to grain (lbf/in2)parallel to grain (lbf/in2) Hardwoods Aspen Quaking Green 0.37 5,500 1.31 2,350 200 720 12% 9,800 1.63 5,260 510 980 Bigtooth Green 0.39 5,300 1.08 2,390 210 790 12% 9,500 1.26 4,760 470 1,100 Cottonwood Balsam, poplar Green 0.37 5,000 1.15 2,110 180 670 12% 10,100 1.67 5,020 420 890 Black Green 0.30 4,100 0.97 1,860 100 560 12% 7,100 1.28 4,020 260 860 Eastern Green 0.35 4,700 0.87 1,970 210 770 12% 7,500 1.13 3,840 470 1,160 Softwoods Cedar Northern white Green 0.30 3,900 0.52 1,890 200 660 12% 6,100 0.63 3,590 390 1,000 Western redcedar Green 0.31 5,300 1.05 2,780 280 700 12% 7,800 1.19 4,290 500 810 Yellow Green 0.42 6,600 1.34 3,240 350 880 12% 11,600 1.59 6,640 690 1,340 Douglas-fir Green 0.45 7,500 1.61 3,610 460 920 12% 12,800 1.97 7,260 870 1,380 Fir Balsam Green 0.34 5,300 1.13 2,440 240 680 12% 8,500 1.40 4,980 460 910 Pacific silver Green 0.36 5,500 1.35 2,770 230 710 12% 10,000 1.64 5,930 520 1,190 Subalpine Green 0.33 5,200 1.26 2,500 260 680 12% 8,200 1.48 5,280 540 980 Hemlock Eastern Green 0.40 6,800 1.27 3,430 400 910 12% 9,700 1.41 5,970 630 1,260 Western Green 0.41 7,000 1.48 3,580 370 750 12% 11,800 1.79 6,770 660 940 Larch, western Green 0.55 8,700 1.65 4,420 520 920 12% 15,500 2.08 8,840 1,060 1,340 Pine Eastern white Green 0.36 5,100 1.18 2,590 240 640 12% 9,500 1.36 5,230 490 880 Jack Green 0.42 6,300 1.17 2,950 340 820 12% 11,300 1.48 5,870 830 1,190 Lodgepole Green 0.40 5,600 1.27 2,860 280 720 12% 11,000 1.58 6,260 530 1,240 Ponderosa Green 0.44 5,700 1.13 2,840 350 720 12% 10,600 1.38 6,130 760 1,020 Red Green 0.39 5,000 1.07 2,370 280 710 12% 10,100 1.38 5,500 720 1,090 Western white Green 0.36 4,800 1.19 2,520 240 650 12% 9,300 1.46 5,240 470 920 Spruce Black Green 0.41 5,900 1.32 2,760 300 800 12% 11,400 1.52 6,040 620 1,250 Engelmann Green 0.38 5,700 1.25 2,810 270 700 12% 10,100 1.55 6,150 540 1,100 Red Green 0.38 5,900 1.32 2,810 270 810 12% 10,300 1.60 5,590 550 1,330 Sitka Green 0.35 5,400 1.37 2,560 290 630 12% 10,100 1.63 5,480 590 980 White Green 0.35 5,100 1.15 2,470 240 670 12% 9,100 1.45 5,360 500 980 Tamarack Green 0.48 6,800 1.24 3,130 410 920 12% 11,000 1.36 6,510 900 1,300 aResults of tests on small, clear, straight-grained specimens. Property values based on ASTM Standard D2555–88. Information on additional properties can be obtained from Department of Forestry, Canada, Publication No. 1104. For each species, values in the first line are from tests of green material; those in the second line are adjusted from the green condition to 12% moisture content using dry to green clear wood property ratios as reported in ASTM D2555–88. Specific gravity is based on weight when ovendry and volume when green. 4–16Table 4–5a. Mechanical properties of some woods imported into the United States other than Canadian imports (metric)a Static bending Com- Common and botanical Moisture SpecificModulus of ruptureModulus of elasticityWork to maximum loadpression parallel to grainShear parallel to grainSide hard- ness Sample names of species content gravity (kPa) (MPa) (kJ/m3) (kPa) (kPa) (N) originb Afrormosia ( Pericopsis elata ) Green 0.61 102,000 12,200 135 51,600 11,500 7,100 AF 12% 126,900 13,400 127 68,500 14,400 6,900 Albarco ( Cariniana spp.) Green 0.48 — — — — — — AM 12% 100,000 10,300 95 47,000 15,900 4,500 Andiroba ( Carapa guianensis ) Green 0.54 71,000 11,700 68 33,000 8,400 3,900 AM 12% — 106,900 13,800 97 56,000 10,400 5,000 Angelin ( Andira inermis ) Green 0.65 — — — — — — AF 12% 124,100 17,200 — 63,400 12,700 7,800 Angelique ( Dicorynia Green 0.6 78,600 12,700 83 38,500 9,200 4,900 AM guianensis ) 12% — 120,000 15,100 105 60,500 11,400 5,700 Avodire ( Turraeanthus Green 0.48 — — — — — — AF africanus ) 12% 87,600 10,300 65 49,300 14,000 4,800 Azobe ( Lophira alata ) Green 0.87 116,500 14,900 83 65,600 14,100 12,900 AF 12% 168,900 17,000 — 86,900 20,400 14,900 Balsa ( Ochroma pyramidale ) Green 0.16 — — — — — — AM 12% 21,600 3,400 14 14,900 2,100 — Banak ( Virola spp.) Green 0.42 38,600 11,300 28 16,500 5,000 1,400 AM 12% — 75,200 14,100 69 35,400 6,800 2,300 Benge ( Guibourtia arnoldiana ) Green 0.65 — — — — — — AF 12% 147,500 14,100 — 78,600 14,400 7,800 Bubinga ( Guibourtia spp.) Green 0.71 — — — — — — AF 12% 155,800 17,100 — 72,400 21,400 12,000 Bulletwood ( Manilkara Green 0.85 119,300 18,600 94 59,900 13,100 9,900 AM bidentata ) 12% 188,200 23,800 197 80,300 17,200 14,200 Cativo ( Prioria copaifera ) Green 0.4 40,700 6,500 37 17,000 5,900 2,000 AM 12% — 59,300 7,700 50 29,600 7,300 2,800 Ceiba ( Ceiba pentandra ) Green 0.25 15,200 2,800 8 7,300 2,400 1,000 AM 12% 29,600 3,700 19 16,400 3,800 1,100 Courbaril ( Hymenaea Green 0.71 88,900 12,700 101 40,000 12,200 8,800 AM courbaril ) 12% — 133,800 14,900 121 65,600 17,000 10,500 Cuangare ( Dialyanthera spp.) Green 0.31 27,600 7,000 — 14,300 4,100 1,000 AM 12% 50,300 10,500 — 32,800 5,700 1,700 Cypress, Mexican ( Cupressus Green 0.93 42,700 6,300 — 19,900 6,600 1,500 AF lustianica ) 12% 71,000 7,000 — 37,100 10,900 2,000 Degame ( Calycophyllum Green 0.67 98,600 13,300 128 42,700 11,400 7,300 AM candidissimum ) 12% 153,800 15,700 186 66,700 14,600 8,600 Determa ( Ocotea rubra ) Green 0.52 53,800 10,100 33 25,900 5,900 2,300 AM 12% 72,400 12,500 44 40,000 6,800 2,900 Ekop ( Tetraberlinia Green 0.6 — — — — — — AF tubmaniana ) 12% 115,100 15,200 — 62,100 — — Goncalo alves ( Astronium Green 0.84 83,400 13,400 46 45,400 12,100 8,500 AM graveolens ) 12% — 114,500 15,400 72 71,200 13,500 9,600 Greenheart ( Chlorocardium Green 0.8 133,100 17,000 72 64,700 13,300 8,400 AM rodiei ) 12% 171,700 22,400 175 86,300 18,100 10,500 Hura ( Hura crepitans ) Green 0.38 43,400 7,200 41 19,200 5,700 2,000 AM 12% 60,000 8,100 46 33,100 7,400 2,400 4–17Table 4–5a. Mechanical properties of some woods imported into the United States other than Canadian imports (metric)a—con. Static bending Com- Common and botanical Moisture SpecificModulus of ruptureModulus of elasticityWork to maximum loadpression parallel to grainShear parallel to grainSide hard-ness Sample names of species content gravity (kPa) (MPa) (kJ/m 3) (kPa) (kPa) (N) originb llomba ( Pycnanthus Geen 0.4 37,900 7,900 — 20,000 5,800 2,100 AF angolensis ) 12% 68,300 11,000 — 38,300 8,900 2,700 Ipe (Tabebuia spp., Green 0.92 155,800 20,100 190 71,400 14,600 13,600 AM lapacho group) 12% 175,100 21,600 152 89,700 14,200 16,400Iroko ( Chlorophora spp.) Green 0.54 70,300 8,900 72 33,900 9,000 4,800 AF 12% 85,500 10,100 62 52,300 12,400 5,600 Jarrah ( Eucalyptus marginata ) Green 0.67 68,300 10,200 — 35,800 9,100 5,700 AS 12% — 111,700 13,000 — 61,200 14,700 8,500 Jelutong ( Dyera costulata ) Green 0.36 38,600 8,000 39 21,000 5,200 1,500 AS 15% 50,300 8,100 44 27,000 5,800 1,700 Kaneelhart ( Licaria spp.) Green 0.96 153,800 26,300 94 92,300 11,600 9,800 AM 12% 206,200 28,000 121 120,000 13,600 12,900 Kapur ( Dryobalanops spp.) Green 0.64 88,300 11,000 108 42,900 8,100 4,400 AS 12% 126,200 13,000 130 69,600 13,700 5,500 Karri ( Eucalyptus diversicolor ) Green 0.82 77,200 13,400 80 37,600 10,400 6,000 AS 12% 139,000 17,900 175 74,500 16,700 9,100 Kempas ( Koompassia Green 0.71 100,000 16,600 84 54,700 10,100 6,600 AS malaccensis ) 12% 122,000 18,500 106 65,600 12,300 7,600 Keruing ( Dipterocarpus spp.) Green 0.69 82,000 11,800 96 39,200 8,100 4,700 AS 12% 137,200 14,300 162 72,400 14,300 5,600 Lignumvitae ( Guaiacum spp.) Green 1.05 — — — — — — AM 12% — — — — 78,600 — 20,000 Limba ( Terminalia superba ) Green 0.38 41,400 5,300 53 19,200 600 1,800 AF 12% 60,700 7,000 61 32,600 9,700 2,200 Macawood ( Platymiscium spp.) Green 0.94 153,800 20,800 — 72,700 12,700 14,800 AM 12% 190,300 22,100 — 111,000 17,500 14000 Mahogany, African Green 0.42 51,000 7,900 49 25,700 6,400 2,800 AF (Khaya spp.) 12% 73,800 9,700 57 44,500 10,300 3,700 Mahogany, true Green 0.45 62,100 9,200 63 29,900 8,500 3,300 AM (Swietenia macrophylla ) 12% — 79,300 10,300 52 46,700 8,500 3,600 Manbarklak ( Eschweilera spp.) Green 0.87 117,900 18,600 120 50,600 11,200 10,100 AM 12% 182,700 21,600 230 77,300 14,300 15,500 Manni ( Symphonia globulifera ) Green 0.58 77,200 13,500 77 35,600 7,900 4,200 AM 12% 116,500 17,000 114 60,800 9,800 5,000 Marishballi ( Lincania spp.) Green 0.88 117,900 20,200 92 52,300 11,200 10,000 AM 12% 191,000 23,000 98 92,300 12,100 15,900 Merbau ( Intsia spp.) Green 0.64 88,900 13,900 88 46,700 10,800 6,100 AS 15% — 115,800 15,400 102 58,200 12,500 6,700 Mersawa ( Anisoptera spp.) Green 0.52 55,200 12,200 — 27,300 5,100 3,900 AS 12% 95,100 15,700 — 50,800 6,100 5,700 Mora ( Mora spp.) Green 0.78 86,900 16,100 93 44,100 9,700 6,400 AM 12% 152,400 20,400 128 81,600 13,100 10,200 Oak ( Quercus spp.) Green 0.76 — — — — — — AM 12% 158,600 20,800 114 — — 11,100 Obeche ( Triplochiton Green 0.3 35,200 5,000 43 17,700 4,600 1,900 AF scleroxylon ) 12% 51,000 5,900 48 27,100 6,800 1,900 4–18Table 4–5a. Mechanical properties of some woods imported into the United States other than Canadian imports (metric)a—con. Static bending Com- Common and botanical Moisture SpecificModulus of ruptureModulus of elasticityWork to maximum loadpression parallel to grainShear parallel to grainSide hard-ness Sample names of species content gravity (kPa) (MPa) (kJ/m 3) (kPa) (kPa) (N) originb Okoume ( Aucoumea Green 0.33 — — — — — — AF klaineana ) 12% 51,000 7,900 — 27,400 6,700 1,700 Opepe ( Nauclea diderrichii ) Green 0.63 93,800 11,900 84 51,600 13,100 6,800 AF 12% 120,000 13,400 99 71,700 17,100 7,300 Ovangkol ( Guibourtia ehie ) Green 0.67 — — — — — — AF 12% 116,500 17,700 — 57,200 — — Para-angelim ( Hymenolobium Green 0.63 100,700 13,400 88 51,400 11,000 7,700 AM excelsum ) 12% 121,300 14,100 110 62,000 13,900 7,700 Parana-pine ( Araucaria Green 0.46 49,600 9,300 67 27,600 6,700 2,500 AM augustifolia ) 12% — 93,100 11,100 84 52,800 11,900 3,500 Pau marfim ( Balfourodendron Green 0.73 99,300 11,400 — 41,900 — — AM riedelianum ) 15% 130,300 — — 56,500 — — Peroba de campos Green 0.62 — — — — — — AM (Paratecoma peroba ) 12% 106,200 12,200 70 61,200 14,700 7,100 Peroba rosa ( Aspidosperma Green 0.66 75,200 8,900 72 38,200 13,000 7,000 AM spp., peroba group) 12% 83,400 10,500 63 54,600 17,200 7,700Pilon ( Hyeronima spp.) Green 0.65 73,800 13,000 57 34,200 8,300 5,400 AM 12% 125,500 15,700 83 66,300 11,900 7,600 Pine, Caribbean ( Pinus Green 0.68 77,200 13,000 74 33,800 8,100 4,400 AM caribaea ) 12% — 115,100 15,400 119 58,900 14,400 5,500 Pine, ocote ( Pinus oocarpa ) Green 0.55 55,200 12,000 48 25,400 7,200 2,600 AM 12% — 102,700 15,500 75 53,000 11,900 4,000 Pine, radiata ( Pinus radiata ) Green 0.42 42,100 8,100 — 19,200 5,200 2,100 AS 12% — 80,700 10,200 — 41,900 11,000 3,300 Piquia ( Caryocar spp.) Green 0.72 85,500 12,500 58 43,400 11,300 7,700 AM 12% 117,200 14,900 109 58,000 13,700 7,700 Primavera ( Tabebuia Green 0.4 49,600 6,800 50 24,200 7,100 3,100 AM donnell–smithii ) 12% 65,500 7,200 44 38,600 9,600 2,900 Purpleheart ( Peltogyne spp.) Green 0.67 9,400 13,800 102 48,400 11,300 8,100 AM 12% 132,400 15,700 121 71,200 15,300 8,300 Ramin ( Gonystylus bancanus ) Green 0.52 67,600 10,800 62 37,200 6,800 2,800 AS 12% — 127,600 15,000 117 69,500 10,500 5,800 Robe ( Tabebuia spp., Green 0.52 74,500 10,000 81 33,900 8,600 4,000 AM roble group) 12% 95,100 11,000 86 50,600 10,000 4,300Rosewood, Brazilian Green 0.8 97,200 12,700 91 38,000 16,300 10,900 AM (Dalbergia nigra ) 12% — 131,000 13,000 — 66,200 14,500 12,100 Rosewood, Indian ( Dalbergia Green 0.75 63,400 8,200 80 31,200 9,700 6,900 AS latifolia ) 12% 116,500 12,300 90 63,600 14,400 14,100 Sande ( Brosimum spp., Green 0.49 58,600 13,400 — 31,000 7,200 2,700 AM utile group) 12% 98,600 16,500 — 56,700 8,900 4,000Santa Maria ( Calophyllum Green 0.52 72,400 11,000 88 31,400 8,700 4,000 AM brasiliense ) 12% — 100,700 12,600 111 47,600 14,300 5,100 Sapele ( Entandrophragma Green 0.55 70,300 10,300 72 34,500 8,600 4,500 AF cylindricum ) 12% — 105,500 12,500 108 56,300 15,600 6,700 Sepetir ( Pseudosindora Green 0.56 77,200 10,800 92 37,600 9,000 4,200 AS palustris ) 12% 118,600 13,600 92 61,200 14,000 6,300 4–19Table 4–5a. Mechanical properties of some woods imported into the United States other than Canadian imports (metric)a—con. Static bending Com- Common and botanical Moisture SpecificModulus of ruptureModulus of elasticityWork to maximum loadpression parallel to grainShear parallel to grainSide hard-ness Sample names of species content gravity (kPa) (MPa) (kJ/m 3) (kPa) (kPa) (N) originb Shorea ( Shorea spp., Green 0.68 80,700 14,500 — 37,100 9,900 6,000 AS baulau group) 12% 129,600 18,000 — 70,200 15,100 7,900 Shorea, lauan–meranti group Dark red meranti Green 0.46 64,800 10,300 59 32,500 7,700 3,100 AS 12% 87,600 12,200 95 50,700 10,000 3,500 Light red meranti Green 0.34 45,500 7,200 43 23,000 4,900 2,000 AS 12% 65,500 8,500 59 40,800 6,700 2,000 White meranti Green 0.55 67,600 9,000 57 37,900 9,100 4,400 AS 15% 85,500 10,300 79 43,800 10,600 5,100 Yellow meranti Green 0.46 55,200 9,000 56 26,800 7,100 3,300 AS 12% 78,600 10,700 70 40,700 10,500 3,400 Spanish-cedar ( Cedrela spp.) Green 0.41 51,700 9,000 49 23,200 6,800 2,400 AM 12% — 79,300 9,900 65 42,800 7,600 2,700 Sucupira ( Bowdichia spp.) Green 0.74 118,600 15,700 — 67,100 — — AM 15% 133,800 — — 76,500 — — Sucupira ( Diplotropis purpurea ) Green 0.78 120,000 18,500 90 55,300 12,400 8,800 AM 12% 142,000 19,800 102 83,700 13,500 9,500 Teak ( Tectona grandis ) Green 0.55 80,000 9,400 92 41,100 8,900 4,100 AS 12% 100,700 10,700 83 58,000 13,000 4,400 Tornillo ( Cedrelinga Green 0.45 57,900 — — 28,300 8,100 3,900 AM cateniformis ) 12% — — — — — — — Wallaba ( Eperua spp.) Green 0.78 98,600 16,100 — 55,400 — 6,900 AM 12% — 131,700 15,700 — 74,200 — 9,100 aResults of tests on small, clear, straight-grained specimens. Property values were taken from world literature (not obtained from experiments conducted at the Forest Products Laboratory). Other species may be reported in the world literature, as well as additional data on many of these species. Some property values have been adjusted to 12% moisture content. bAF is Africa; AM, America; AS, Asia. 4–20Table 4–5b. Mechanical properties of some woods imported into the United States other than Canadian imports (inch–pound)a Static bending Com- Common and botanical Moisture SpecificModulus of ruptureModulus of elasticityWork to maximum loadpression parallel to grainShear parallel to grainSide hard-ness Sample names of species content gravity (lbf/in 2)(·106 lbf/in2) (in-lbf/in3) (lbf/in2) (lbf/in2) (lbf) originb Afrormosia ( Pericopsis elata ) Green 0.61 14,800 1.77 19.5 7,490 1,670 1,600 AF 12% 18,400 1.94 18.4 9,940 2,090 1,560 Albarco ( Cariniana spp.) Green 0.48 — — — — — — AM 12% 14,500 1.5 13.8 6,820 2,310 1,020 Andiroba ( Carapa guianensis ) Green 0.54 10,300 1.69 9.8 4,780 1,220 880 AM 12% — 15,500 2 14 8,120 1,510 1,130 Angelin ( Andira inermis ) Green 0.65 — — — — — — AF 12% 18,000 2.49 — 9,200 1,840 1,750 Angelique ( Dicorynia Green 0.6 11,400 1.84 12 5,590 1,340 1,100 AM guianensis ) 12% — 17,400 2.19 15.2 8,770 1,660 1,290 Avodire ( Turraeanthus Green 0.48 — — — — — — AF africanus ) 12% 12,700 1.49 9.4 7,150 2,030 1,080 Azobe ( Lophira alata ) Green 0.87 16,900 2.16 12 9,520 2,040 2,890 AF 12% 24,500 2.47 — 12,600 2,960 3,350 Balsa ( Ochroma pyramidale ) Green 0.16 — — — — — — AM 12% 3,140 0.49 2.1 2,160 300 — Banak ( Virola spp.) Green 0.42 5,600 1.64 4.1 2,390 720 320 AM 12% — 10,900 2.04 10 5,140 980 510 Benge ( Guibourtia arnoldiana ) Green 0.65 — — — — — — AF 12% 21,400 2.04 — 11,400 2,090 1,750 Bubinga ( Guibourtia spp.) Green 0.71 — — — — — — AF 12% 22,600 2.48 — 10,500 3,110 2,690 Bulletwood ( Manilkara Green 0.85 17,300 2.7 13.6 8,690 1,900 2,230 AM bidentata ) 12% 27,300 3.45 28.5 11,640 2,500 3,190 Cativo ( Prioria copaifera ) Green 0.4 5,900 0.94 5.4 2,460 860 440 AM 12% — 8,600 1.11 7.2 4,290 1,060 630 Ceiba ( Ceiba pentandra ) Green 0.25 2,200 0.41 1.2 1,060 350 220 AM 12% 4,300 0.54 2.8 2,380 550 240 Courbaril ( Hymenaea Green 0.71 12,900 1.84 14.6 5,800 1,770 1,970 AM courbaril ) 12% — 19,400 2.16 17.6 9,510 2,470 2,350 Cuangare ( Dialyanthera spp.) Green 0.31 4,000 1.01 — 2,080 590 230 AM 12% 7,300 1.52 — 4,760 830 380 Cypress, Mexican ( Cupressus Green 0.93 6,200 0.92 — 2,880 950 340 AF lustianica ) 12% 10,300 1.02 — 5,380 1,580 460 Degame ( Calycophyllum Green 0.67 14,300 1.93 18.6 6,200 1,660 1,630 AM candidissimum ) 12% 22,300 2.27 27 9,670 2,120 1,940 Determa ( Ocotea rubra ) Green 0.52 7,800 1.46 4.8 3,760 860 520 AM 12% 10,500 1.82 6.4 5,800 980 660 Ekop ( Tetraberlinia Green 0.6 — — — — — — AF tubmaniana ) 12% 16,700 2.21 — 9,010 — — Goncalo alves ( Astronium Green 0.84 12,100 1.94 6.7 6,580 1,760 1,910 AM graveolens ) 12% — 16,600 2.23 10.4 10,320 1,960 2,160 Greenheart ( Chlorocardium rodiei ) Green 0.8 19,300 2.47 10.5 9,380 1,930 1,880 AM 12% 24,900 3.25 25.3 12,510 2,620 2,350 Hura ( Hura crepitans ) Green 0.38 6,300 1.04 5.9 2,790 830 440 AM 12% 8,700 1.17 6.7 4,800 1,080 550 4–21Table 4–5b. Mechanical properties of some woods imported into the United States other than Canadian imports (inch–pound)a—con. Static bending Com- Common and botanical Moisture SpecificModulus of ruptureModulus of elasticityWork to maximum loadpression parallel to grainShear parallel to grainSide hard-ness Sample names of species content gravity (lbf/in 2)(·106 lbf/in2) (in-lbf/in3) (lbf/in2) (lbf/in2) (lbf) originb llomba ( Pycnanthus Geen 0.4 5,500 1.14 — 2,900 840 470 AF angolensis ) 12% 9,900 1.59 — 5,550 1,290 610 Ipe (Tabebuia spp., Green 0.92 22,600 2.92 27.6 10,350 2,120 3,060 AM lapacho group) 12% 25,400 3.14 22 13,010 2,060 3,680 Iroko ( Chlorophora spp.) Green 0.54 10,200 1.29 10.5 4,910 1,310 1,080 AF 12% 12,400 1.46 9 7,590 1,800 1,260 Jarrah ( Eucalyptus marginata ) Green 0.67 9,900 1.48 — 5,190 1,320 1,290 AS 12% — 16,200 1.88 — 8,870 2,130 1,910 Jelutong ( Dyera costulata ) Green 0.36 5,600 1.16 5.6 3,050 760 330 AS 15% 7,300 1.18 6.4 3,920 840 390 Kaneelhart ( Licaria spp.) Green 0.96 22,300 3.82 13.6 13,390 1,680 2,210 AM 12% 29,900 4.06 17.5 17,400 1,970 2,900 Kapur ( Dryobalanops spp.) Green 0.64 12,800 1.6 15.7 6,220 1,170 980 AS 12% 18,300 1.88 18.8 10,090 1,990 1,230 Karri ( Eucalyptus diversicolor ) Green 0.82 11,200 1.94 11.6 5,450 1,510 1,360 AS 12% 20,160 2.6 25.4 10,800 2,420 2,040 Kempas ( Koompassia Green 0.71 14,500 2.41 12.2 7,930 1,460 1,480 AS malaccensis ) 12% 17,700 2.69 15.3 9,520 1,790 1,710 Keruing ( Dipterocarpus spp.) Green 0.69 11,900 1.71 13.9 5,680 1,170 1,060 AS 12% 19,900 2.07 23.5 10,500 2,070 1,270 Lignumvitae ( Guaiacum spp.) Green 1.05 — — — — — — AM 12% — — — — 11,400 — 4,500 Limba ( Terminalia superba ) Green 0.38 6,000 0.77 7.7 2,780 88 400 AF 12% 8,800 1.01 8.9 4,730 1,410 490 Macawood ( Platymiscium spp.) Green 0.94 22,300 3.02 — 10,540 1,840 3,320 AM 12% 27,600 3.2 — 16,100 2,540 3,150 Mahogany, African ( Khaya spp.) Green 0.42 7,400 1.15 7.1 3,730 931 640 AF 12% 10,700 1.4 8.3 6,460 1,500 830 Mahogany, true Green 0.45 9,000 1.34 9.1 4,340 1,240 740 AM (Swietenia macrophylla ) 12% — 11,500 1.5 7.5 6,780 1,230 800 Manbarklak ( Eschweilera spp.) Green 0.87 17,100 2.7 17.4 7,340 1,630 2,280 AM 12% 26,500 3.14 33.3 11,210 2,070 3,480 Manni ( Symphonia globulifera ) Green 0.58 11,200 1.96 11.2 5,160 1,140 940 AM 12% 16,900 2.46 16.5 8,820 1,420 1,120 Marishballi ( Lincania spp.) Green 0.88 17,100 2.93 13.4 7,580 1,620 2,250 AM 12% 27,700 3.34 14.2 13,390 1,750 3,570 Merbau ( Intsia spp.) Green 0.64 12,900 2.02 12.8 6,770 1,560 1,380 AS 15% — 16,800 2.23 14.8 8,440 1,810 1,500 Mersawa ( Anisoptera spp.) Green 0.52 8,000 1.77 — 3,960 740 880 AS 12% 13,800 2.28 — 7,370 890 1,290 Mora ( Mora spp.) Green 0.78 12,600 2.33 13.5 6,400 1,400 1,450 AM 12% 22,100 2.96 18.5 11,840 1,900 2,300 Oak ( Quercus spp.) Green 0.76 — — — — — — AM 12% 23,000 3.02 16.5 — — 2,500 Obeche ( Triplochiton Green 0.3 5,100 0.72 6.2 2,570 660 420 AF scleroxylon ) 12% 7,400 0.86 6.9 3,930 990 430 4–22Table 4–5b. Mechanical properties of some woods imported into the United States other than Canadian imports (inch–pound)a—con. Static bending Com- Common and botanical Moisture SpecificModulus of ruptureModulus of elasticityWork to maximum loadpression para to grain llelShear parallel to grainSide hard-ness Sample names of species content gravity (lbf/in 2)(·106 lbf/in2) (in-lbf/in3) (lbf/in2) (lbf/in2) (lbf) originb Okoume ( Aucoumea Green 0.33 — — — — — — AF klaineana ) 12% 7,400 1.14 — 3,970 970 380 Opepe ( Nauclea diderrichii ) Green 0.63 13,600 1.73 12.2 7,480 1,900 1,520 AF 12% 17,400 1.94 14.4 10,400 2,480 1,630 Ovangkol ( Guibourtia ehie ) Green 0.67 — — — — — — AF 12% 16,900 2.56 — 8,300 — — Para-angelim ( Hymenolobium Green 0.63 14,600 1.95 12.8 7,460 1,600 1,720 AM excelsum ) 12% 17,600 2.05 15.9 8,990 2,010 1,720 Parana-pine ( Araucaria Green 0.46 7,200 1.35 9.7 4,010 970 560 AM augustifolia ) 12% — 13,500 1.61 12.2 7,660 1,730 780 Pau marfim ( Balfourodendron Green 0.73 14,400 1.66 — 6,070 — — AM riedelianum ) 15% 18,900 — — 8,190 — — Peroba de campos Green 0.62 — — — — — — AM (Paratecoma peroba ) 12% 15,400 1.77 10.1 8,880 2,130 1,600 Peroba rosa ( Aspidosperma Green 0.66 10,900 1.29 10.5 5,540 1,880 1,580 AM spp., peroba group) 12% 12,100 1.53 9.2 7,920 2,490 1,730 Pilon ( Hyeronima spp.) Green 0.65 10,700 1.88 8.3 4,960 1,200 1,220 AM 12% 18,200 2.27 12.1 9,620 1,720 1,700 Pine, Caribbean ( Pinus caribaea ) Green 0.68 11,200 1.88 10.7 4,900 1,170 980 AM 12% — 16,700 2.24 17.3 8,540 2,090 1,240 Pine, ocote ( Pinus oocarpa ) Green 0.55 8,000 1.74 6.9 3,690 1,040 580 AM 12% — 14,900 2.25 10.9 7,680 1,720 910 Pine, radiata ( Pinus radiata ) Green 0.42 6,100 1.18 — 2,790 750 480 AS 12% — 11,700 1.48 — 6,080 1,600 750 Piquia ( Caryocar spp.) Green 0.72 12,400 1.82 8.4 6,290 1,640 1,720 AM 12% 17,000 2.16 15.8 8,410 1,990 1,720 Primavera ( Tabebuia Green 0.4 7,200 0.99 7.2 3,510 1,030 700 AM donnell–smithii ) 12% 9,500 1.04 6.4 5,600 1,390 660 Purpleheart ( Peltogyne spp.) Green 0.67 1,370 2 14.8 7,020 1,640 1,810 AM 12% 19,200 2.27 17.6 10,320 2,220 1,860 Ramin ( Gonystylus bancanus ) Green 0.52 9,800 1.57 9 5,390 990 640 AS 12% — 18,500 2.17 17 10,080 1,520 1,300 Robe ( Tabebuia spp., Green 0.52 10,800 1.45 11.7 4,910 1,250 910 AM roble group) 12% 13,800 1.6 12.5 7,340 1,450 960 Rosewood, Brazilian Green 0.8 14,100 1.84 13.2 5,510 2,360 2,440 AM (Dalbergia nigra ) 12% — 19,000 1.88 — 9,600 2,110 2,720 Rosewood, Indian ( Dalbergia Green 0.75 9,200 1.19 11.6 4,530 1,400 1,560 AS latifolia ) 12% 16,900 1.78 13.1 9,220 2,090 3,170 Sande ( Brosimum spp., Green 0.49 8,500 1.94 — 4,490 1,040 600 AM utile group) 12% 14,300 2.39 — 8,220 1,290 900 Santa Maria ( Calophyllum Green0.5210,5001.59 12.7 4,560 1,260 890 AM brasiliense ) 12% — 14,600 1.83 16.1 6,910 2,080 1,150 Sapele ( Entandrophragma Green 0.55 10,200 1.49 10.5 5,010 1,250 1,020 AF cylindricum ) 12% — 15,300 1.82 15.7 8,160 2,260 1,510 Sepetir ( Pseudosindora palustris) Green 0.56 11,200 1.57 13.3 5,460 1,310 950 AS 12% 17,200 1.97 13.3 8,880 2,030 1,410 4–23Table 4–5b. Mechanical properties of some woods imported into the United States other than Canadian imports (inch–pound)a—con. Static bending Com- Common and botanical Moisture SpecificModulus of ruptureModulus of elasticityWork to maximum loadpression parallel to grainShear parallel to grainSide hard-ness Sample names of species content gravity (lbf/in 2)(·106 lbf/in2) (in-lbf/in3) (lbf/in2) (lbf/in2) (lbf) originb Shorea (Shorea spp., Green 0.68 11,700 2.1 — 5,380 1,440 1,350 AS bullau group) 12% 18,800 2.61 — 10,180 2,190 1,780 Shorea, lauan–meranti group Dark red meranti Green 0.46 9,400 1.5 8.6 4,720 1,110 700 AS 12% 12,700 1.77 13.8 7,360 1,450 780 Light red meranti Green 0.34 6,600 1.04 6.2 3,330 710 440 AS 12% 9,500 1.23 8.6 5,920 970 460 White meranti Green 0.55 9,800 1.3 8.3 5,490 1,320 1,000 AS 15% 12,400 1.49 11.4 6,350 1,540 1,140 Yellow meranti Green 0.46 8,000 1.3 8.1 3,880 1,030 750 AS 12% 11,400 1.55 10.1 5,900 1,520 770 Spanish-cedar ( Cedrela spp.) Green 0.41 7,500 1.31 7.1 3,370 990 550 AM 12% — 11,500 1.44 9.4 6,210 1,100 600 Sucupira ( Bowdichia spp.) Green 0.74 17,200 2.27 — 9,730 — — AM 15% 19,400 — — 11,100 — — Sucupira ( Diplotropis purpurea ) Green 0.78 17,400 2.68 13 8,020 1,800 1,980 AM 12% 20,600 2.87 14.8 12,140 1,960 2,140 Teak ( Tectona grandis ) Green 0.55 11,600 1.37 13.4 5,960 1,290 930 AS 12% 14,600 1.55 12 8,410 1,890 1,000 Tornillo ( Cedrelinga Green 0.45 8,400 — — 4,100 1,170 870 AM cateniformis ) 12% — — — — — — — Wallaba ( Eperua spp.) Green 0.78 14,300 2.33 — 8,040 — 1,540 AM 12% — 19,100 2.28 — 10,760 — 2,040 aResults of tests on small, clear, straight-grained specimens. Property values were taken from world literature (not obtained from experiments conducted at the Forest Products Laboratory). Other species may be reported in the world literature, as well as additional data on many of these species. Some property values have been adjusted to 12% moisture content. bAF is Africa; AM, America; AS, Asia. Table 4–6. Average coefficients of variation for some mechanical propertiesof clear wood Coefficient of variation a Property (%)Static bending Modulus of rupture 16 Modulus of elasticity 22Work to maximum load 34 Impact bending 25Compression parallel to grain 18Compression perpendicular to grain 28Shear parallel to grain, maximum shearing strength 14Tension parallel to grain 25Side hardness 20Toughness 34Specific gravity 10 aValues based on results of tests of green wood from approximately 50 species. Values for wood adjusted to 12% moisture content may be assumed to be approximately of the same magnitude. 4–24Less Common Properties Strength properties less commonly measured in clear wood include torsion, toughness, rolling shear, and fracture tough-ness. Other properties involving time under load includecreep, creep rupture or duration of load, and fatigue strength. Torsion strength— Resistance to twisting about a longi- tudinal axis. For solid wood members, torsional shearstrength may be taken as shear strength parallel to grain.Two-thirds of the value for torsional shear strength may beused as an estimate of the torsional shear stress at the pro-portional limit. Toughness— Energy required to cause rapid complete failure in a centrally loaded bending specimen. Tables 4–8and 4–9 give average toughness values for samples of a fewhardwood and softwood species. Average coefficients ofvariation for toughness as determined from approximately50 species are shown in Table 4–6.Creep and duration of load— Time-dependent deforma- tion of wood under load. If the load is sufficiently high andthe duration of load is long, failure (creep–rupture) willeventually occur. The time required to reach rupture iscommonly called duration of load. Duration of load is animportant factor in setting design values for wood. Creepand duration of load are described in later sections of thischapter. Fatigue— Resistance to failure under specific combinations of cyclic loading conditions: frequency and number ofcycles, maximum stress, ratio of maximum to minimumstress, and other less-important factors. The main factorsaffecting fatigue in wood are discussed later in this chapter.The discussion also includes interpretation of fatigue dataand information on fatigue as a function of the serviceenvironment. Rolling shear strength— Shear strength of wood where shearing force is in a longitudinal plane and is acting per-pendicular to the grain. Few test values of rolling shear insolid wood have been reported. In limited tests, rollingshear strength averaged 18% to 28% of parallel-to-grainshear values. Rolling shear strength is about the same inthe longitudinal–radial and longitudinal–tangential planes. Fracture toughness— Ability of wood to withstand flaws that initiate failure. Measurement of fracture toughnesshelps identify the length of critical flaws that initiate failurein materials. To date there is no standard test method for determining fracture toughness in wood. Three types of stress fields, andassociated stress intensity factors, can be defined at a cracktip: opening mode (I), forward shear mode (II), and transverseshear mode (III) (Fig. 4–2a). A crack may lie in one of theseTable 4–7. Average parallel-to-grain tensile strength of some wood speciesa Tensile strength Species (kPa (lb/in2)) Hardwoods Beech, American 86,200 (12,500) Elm, cedar 120,700 (17,500) Maple, sugar 108,200 (15,700) Oak Overcup 77,900 (11,300) Pin 112,400 (16,300) Poplar, balsam 51,000 (7,400) Sweetgum 93,800 (13,600) Willow, black 73,100 (10,600) Yellow-poplar 109,600 (15,900) Softwoods Baldcypress 58,600 (8,500) Cedar Port-Orford 78,600 (11,400) Western redcedar 45,500 (6,600) Douglas-fir, interior north 107,600 (15,600) Fir California red 77,900 (11,300) Pacific silver 95,100 (13,800) Hemlock, western 89,600 (13,000) Larch, western 111,700 (16,200) Pine Eastern white 73,100 (10,600) Loblolly 80,000 (11,600) Ponderosa 57,900 (8,400) Virginia 94,500 (13,700) Redwood Virgin 64,800 (9,400) Young growth 62,700 (9,100) Spruce Engelmann 84,800 (12,300) Sitka 59,300 (8,600) aResults of tests on small, clear, straight-grained specimens tested green. For hardwood species, strength of specimens tested at 12% moisture content averages about 32% higher; for softwoods, about 13% higher.Table 4–8. Average toughness values for a few hardwood speciesa Toughness Moisture Specific Radial Tangential Species content gravity (J (in-lbf)) (J (in-lbf)) Birch, yellow 12% 0.65 8,100 (500) 10,100 (620) Hickory (mocker- Green 0.64 11,400 (700) 11,700 (720) nut, pignut, sand) 12% 0.71 10,100 (620) 10,700 (660) Maple, sugar 14% 0.64 6,000 (370) 5,900 (360) Oak, red Pin 12% 0.64 7,000 (430) 7,000 (430) Scarlet 11% 0.66 8,300 (510) 7,200 (440) Oak, white Overcup Green 0.56 11,900 (730) 11,100 (680) 13% 0.62 5,500 (340) 5,000 (310) Sweetgum Green 0.48 5,500 (340) 5,400 (330) 13% 0.51 4,200 (260) 4,200 (260) Willow, black Green 0.38 5,000 (310) 5,900 (360) 11% 0.4 3,400 (210) 3,700 (230) Yellow-poplar Green 0.43 5,200 (320) 4,900 (300) 12% 0.45 3,600 (220) 3,400 (210) 4–25three planes and may propagate in one of two directions in each plane. This gives rise to six crack-propagation systems(RL, TL, LR, TR, LT, and RT) (Fig. 4–2b). Of these crack- propagation systems, four systems are of practical impor-tance: RL, TL, TR, and RT. Each of these four systems allow for propagation of a crack along the lower strength pathparallel to the grain. The RL and TL orientations in wood (where R or T is perpendicular to the crack plane and L is the direction in which the crack propagates) will predominate asa result of the low strength and stiffness of wood perpendicu-lar to the grain. It is therefore one of these two orientationsthat is most often tested. Values for Mode I fracture toughness range from 220 to 550 kPa m (200 to 500 lbf in in/.2) and for Mode II range from 1,650 to 2,400 kPa m (1,500 to 2,200 lbf in in/.2). Table 4–10 summarizes selected mode I and mode II test results at 10%to 12% moisture content available in the literature. Thelimited information available on moisture content effects onfracture toughness suggests that fracture toughness is eitherinsensitive to moisture content or increases as the materialdries, reaching a maximum between 6% and 15% moisturecontent; fracture toughness then decreases with further drying. Vibration Properties The vibration properties of primary interest in structuralmaterials are speed of sound and internal friction (dampingcapacity). Speed of Sound The speed of sound in a structural material is a function ofthe modulus of elasticity and density. In wood, the speed ofsound also varies with grain direction because the transversemodulus of elasticity is much less than the longitudinalvalue (as little as 1/20); the speed of sound across the grainis about one-fifth to one-third of the longitudinal value.For example, a piece of wood with a longitudinal modulusof elasticity of 12.4 GPa (1.8  · 10 6 lbf/in2) and density ofTable 4–9. Average toughness values for a few softwood speciesa Toughness Moisture Specific Radial Tangential Species content gravity (J (in-lbf)) (J (in-lbf)) Cedar Western red 9% 0.33 1,500 (90) 2,100 (130) Yellow 10% 0.48 3,400 (210) 3,700 (230) Douglas-fir Coast Green 12%0.44 0.473,400 3,300(210) (200)5,900 5,900(360) (360) Interior west Green 13%0.48 0.513,300 3,400(200) (210)4,900 5,500(300) (340) Interior north Green 14%0.43 0.462,800 2,600(170) (160)3,900 4,100(240) (250) Interior south Green 14%0.38 0.42,100 2,000(130) (120)2,900 2,900(180) (180) Fir California red Green 12%0.36 0.392,100 2,000(130) (120)2,900 2,800(180) (170) Noble Green 0.36 — — 3,900 (240) 12% 0.39 — — 3,600 (220) Pacific silver Green 0.37 2,400 (150) 3,700 (230) 13% 0.4 2,800 (170) 4,200 (260) White Green 0.36 2,300 (140) 3,600 (220) 13% 0.38 2,100 (130) 3,300 (200) Hemlock Mountain Green 0.41 4,100 (250) 4,600 (280) 14% 0.44 2,300 (140) 2,800 (170) Western Green 0.38 2,400 (150) 2,800 (170) 12% 0.41 2,300 (140) 3,400 (210) Larch, western Green 0.51 4,400 (270) 6,500 (400) 12% 0.55 3,400 (210) 5,500 (340) Pine Eastern white Green 0.33 2,000 (120) 2,600 (160) 12% 0.34 1,800 (110) 2,000 (120) Jack Green 0.41 3,300 (200) 6,200 (380) 12% 0.42 2,300 (140) 3,900 (240) Loblolly Green 0.48 5,000 (310) 6,200 (380) 12% 0.51 2,600 (160) 4,200 (260) Lodgepole Green 0.38 2,600 (160) 3,400 (210) Ponderosa Green 0.38 3,100 (190) 4,400 (270) 11% 0.43 2,400 (150) 3,100 (190) Red Green 0.4 3,400 (210) 5,700 (350) 12% 0.43 2,600 (160) 4,700 (290) Shortleaf Green 0.47 4,700 (290) 6,500 (400) 13% 0.5 2,400 (150) 3,700 (230) Slash Green 0.55 5,700 (350) 7,300 (450) 12% 0.59 3,400 (210) 5,200 (320) Virginia Green 0.45 5,500 (340) 7,600 (470) 12% 0.49 2,800 (170) 4,100 (250) Redwood Old-growth Green 0.39 1,800 (110) 3,300 (200) 11% 0.39 1,500 (90) 2,300 (140) Young-growth Green 0.33 1,800 (110) 2,300 (140) 12% 0.34 1,500 (90) 1,800 (110) Spruce, Green 0.34 2,400 (150) 3,100 (190) Engelmann 12% 0.35 1,800 (110) 2,900 (180) aResults of tests on small, clear, straight-grained specimens. Figure 4–2. Possible crack propagation systems for wood. 4–26480 kg/m3 (30 lb/ft3) would have a speed of sound in the longitudinal direction of about 3,800 m/s (12,500 ft/s).In the transverse direction, modulus of elasticity would beabout 690 MPa (100 · 10 3 lbf/in2) and the speed of sound approximately 890 m/s (2,900 ft/s). The speed of sound decreases with increasing temperature or moisture content in proportion to the influence of thesevariables on modulus of elasticity and density. The speed ofsound decreases slightly with increasing frequency and am-plitude of vibration, although for most common applicationsthis effect is too small to be significant. There is no recog-nized independent effect of species on the speed of sound.Variability in the speed of sound in wood is directly relatedto the variability of modulus of elasticity and density. Internal Friction When solid material is strained, some mechanical energy isdissipated as heat. Internal friction is the term used to denotethe mechanism that causes this energy dissipation. Theinternal friction mechanism in wood is a complex function oftemperature and moisture content. In general, there is a valueof moisture content at which internal friction is minimum.On either side of this minimum, internal friction increases asmoisture content varies down to zero or up to the fiber satu-ration point. The moisture content at which minimum inter-nal friction occurs varies with temperature. At room tempera-ture (23ºC (73ºF)), the minimum occurs at about 6%moisture content; at -20ºC (-4ºF), it occurs at about 14% moisture content, and at 70ºC (158ºF), at about 4%. At90ºC (194ºF), the minimum is not well defined and occursnear zero moisture content.Similarly, there are temperatures at which internal friction is minimum, and the temperatures of minimum internal frictionvary with moisture content. The temperatures of minimuminternal friction are higher as the moisture content is de-creased. For temperatures above 0ºC (32ºF) and moisturecontent greater than about 10%, internal friction increasesstrongly as temperature increases, with a strong positiveinteraction with moisture content. For very dry wood, thereis a general tendency for internal friction to decrease as thetemperature increases. The value of internal friction, expressed by logarithmic decrement, ranges from about 0.1 for hot, moist wood to lessthan 0.02 for hot, dry wood. Cool wood, regardless of mois-ture content, would have an intermediate value. Mechanical Properties of Clear Straight-Grained Wood The mechanical properties listed in Table 4–1 through Table 4–9 are based on a variety of sampling methods.Generally, the most extensive sampling is represented inTables 4–3 and 4–4. The values in Table 4–3 are averagesderived for a number of species grown in the United States.The tabulated value is an estimate of the average clear woodproperty of the species. Many values were obtained from testspecimens taken at a height of 2.4 to 5 m (8 to 16 ft) abovethe stump of the tree. Values reported in Table 4–4 representestimates of the average clear wood properties of speciesgrown in Canada and commonly imported into the UnitedStates. Methods of data collection and analysis changed over the years during which the data in Tables 4–3 and 4–4 werecollected. In addition, the character of some forests haschanged with time. Because not all the species were reevalu-ated to reflect these changes, the appropriateness of the datashould be reviewed when used for critical applications suchas stress grades of lumber. Values reported in Table 4–5 were collected from the world literature; thus, the appropriateness of these properties torepresent a species is not known. The properties reported inTables 4–1, 4–2, 4–5, 4–7, 4–8, 4–9 and 4–10 may notnecessarily represent average species characteristics because ofinadequate sampling; however, they do suggest the relativeinfluence of species and other specimen parameters on themechanical behavior recorded. Variability in properties can be important in both production and consumption of wood products. The fact that a piecemay be stronger, harder, or stiffer than the average is often ofless concern to the user than if the piece is weaker; however,this may not be true if lightweight material is selected for aspecific purpose or if harder or tougher material is difficult towork. Some indication of the spread of property values istherefore desirable. Average coefficients of variation for manymechanical properties are presented in Table 4–6.Table 4–10. Summary of selected fracture toughness results Fracture toughness ( kPa m ( lbf/in in.2)) Mode I Mode II Species TL RL TL RL Douglas-fir 320 (290)360 (330)2,230 (2,030) Western hemlock 375 (340)2,240 (2,040) Pine Western white 250 (225)260 (240) Scots 440 (400)500 (455)2,050 (1,860) Southern 375 (340)2,070 (1,880) Ponderosa 290 (265) Red spruce 420 (380)2,190 (1,990)1,665 (1,510) Northern red oak 410 (370) Sugar maple 480 (430) Yellow-poplar 517 (470) 4–27The mechanical properties reported in the tables are signifi- cantly affected by specimen moisture content at time of test.Some tables include properties that were evaluated at differ-ing moisture levels; these moisture levels are reported. Asindicated in the tables, many of the dry test data were ad-justed to a common moisture content base of 12%. Specific gravity is reported in many tables because this property is used as an index of clear wood mechanical proper-ties. The specific gravity values given in Tables 4–3 and 4–4represent the estimated average clear wood specific gravity ofthe species. In the other tables, the specific gravity valuesrepresent only the specimens tested. The variability of spe-cific gravity, represented by the coefficient of variation de-rived from tests on 50 species, is included in Table 4–6. Mechanical and physical properties as measured and reported often reflect not only the characteristics of the wood but alsothe influence of the shape and size of the test specimen andthe test mode. The test methods used to establish propertiesin Tables 4–3, 4–4, 4–7, 4–8 and 4–9 are based on standardprocedures (ASTM D143). The test methods for propertiespresented in other tables are referenced in the selected bibli-ography at the end of this chapter. Common names of species listed in the tables conform to standard nomenclature of the U.S. Department of Agriculture,Forest Service. Other names may be used locally for a spe-cies. Also, one common name may be applied to groups ofspecies for marketing. Natural Characteristics Affecting Mechanical Properties Clear straight-grained wood is used for determining funda- mental mechanical properties; however, because of naturalgrowth characteristics of trees, wood products vary in specificgravity, may contain cross grain, or may have knots andlocalized slope of grain. Natural defects such as pitch pocketsmay occur as a result of biological or climatic elementsinfluencing the living tree. These wood characteristics mustbe taken into account in assessing actual properties or esti-mating the actual performance of wood products. Specific Gravity The substance of which wood is composed is actually heav-ier than water; its specific gravity is about 1.5 regardless ofwood species. In spite of this, the dry wood of most speciesfloats in water, and it is thus evident that part of the volumeof a piece of wood is occupied by cell cavities and pores.Variations in the size of these openings and in the thicknessof the cell walls cause some species to have more woodsubstance per unit volume than other species and thereforehigher specific gravity. Thus, specific gravity is an excellentindex of the amount of wood substance contained in a pieceof wood; it is a good index of mechanical properties as longas the wood is clear, straight grained, and free from defects.However, specific gravity values also reflect the presence ofgums, resins, and extractives, which contribute little to mechanical properties. Approximate relationships between various mechanical properties and specific gravity for clear straight-grained woodof hardwoods and softwoods are given in Table 4–11 aspower functions. Those relationships are based on averagevalues for the 43 softwood and 66 hardwood species pre-sented in Table 4–3. The average data vary around the rela-tionships, so that the relationships do not accurately predictindividual average species values or an individual specimenvalue. In fact, mechanical properties within a species tend tobe linearly, rather than curvilinearly, related to specific grav-ity; where data are available for individual species, linearanalysis is suggested. Knots A knot is that portion of a branch that has become incorpo-rated in the bole of a tree. The influence of a knot on themechanical properties of a wood member is due to the inter-ruption of continuity and change in the direction of woodfibers associated with the knot. The influence of knots de-pends on their size, location, shape, and soundness; atten-dant local slope of grain; and type of stress to which thewood member is subjected. The shape (form) of a knot on a sawn surface depends upon the direction of the exposing cut. A nearly round knot isproduced when lumber is sawn from a log and a branch issawn through at right angles to its length (as in a flatsawnboard). An oval knot is produced if the saw cut is diagonalto the branch length (as in a bastard-sawn board) and a“spiked” knot when the cut is lengthwise to the branch (asin a quartersawn board). Knots are further classified as intergrown or encased (Fig. 4–3). As long as a limb remains alive, there is con-tinuous growth at the junction of the limb and the bole of thetree, and the resulting knot is called intergrown. After thebranch has died, additional growth on the trunk encloses thedead limb, resulting in an encased knot; bole fibers are notcontinuous with the fibers of the encased knot. Encased knotsand knotholes tend to be accompanied by less cross-grainthan are intergrown knots and are therefore generally lessproblematic with regard to most mechanical properties. Most mechanical properties are lower in sections containing knots than in clear straight-grained wood because (a) the clearwood is displaced by the knot, (b) the fibers around the knotare distorted, resulting in cross grain, (c) the discontinuity ofwood fiber leads to stress concentrations, and (d) checkingoften occurs around the knots during drying. Hardness andstrength in compression perpendicular to the grain are excep-tions, where knots may be objectionable only in that theycause nonuniform wear or nonuniform stress distributions atcontact surfaces. Knots have a much greater effect on strength in axial tension than in axial short-column compression, and the effects onbending are somewhat less than those in axial tension. 4–28For this reason, in a simply supported beam, a knot on the lower side (subjected to tensile stresses) has a greater effecton the load the beam will support than does a knot on theupper side (subjected to compressive stresses). In long columns, knots are important because they affect stiffness. In short or intermediate columns, the reduction instrength caused by knots is approximately proportional totheir size; however, large knots have a somewhat greaterrelative effect than do small knots. Knots in round timbers, such as poles and piles, have less effect on strength than do knots in sawn timbers. Althoughthe grain is irregular around knots in both forms of timber,the angle of the grain to the surface is smaller in naturallyround timber than in sawn timber. Furthermore, in round This page revised June 2002timbers there is no discontinuity in wood fibers, whichresults from sawing through both local and general slope ofgrain. The effects of knots in structural lumber are discussed in Chapter 6. Slope of Grain In some wood product applications, the directions of impor-tant stresses may not coincide with the natural axes of fiberorientation in the wood. This may occur by choice indesign, from the way the wood was removed from the log, orbecause of grain irregularities that occurred while the tree wasgrowing.Table 4–11a. Functions relating mechanical properties to specific gravity of clear, straight-grained wood (metric) Specific gravity–strength relationship Green wood Wood at 12% moisture content PropertyaSoftwoods Hardwoods Softwoods Hardwoods Static bending MOR (kPa) 109,600 G1.01118,700 G1.16 170,700 G1.01 171,300 G1.13 MOE (MPa) 16,100 G0.76 13,900 G0.72 20,500 G0.84 16,500 G0.7 WML (kJ/m3) 147 G1.21229 G1.52179 G1.34219 G1.54 Impact bending (N) 353 G1.35422 G1.39346 G1.39423 G1.65 Compression parallel (kPa) 49,700 G0.9449,000 G1.1193,700 G0.9776,000 G0.89 Compression perpendicular (kPa) 8,800 G1.5318,500 G2.4816,500 G1.5721,600 G2.09 Shear parallel (kPa) 11,000 G0.7317,800 G1.2416,600 G0.8521,900 G1.13 Tension perpendicular (kPa) 3,800 G0.7810,500 G1.376,000 G1.1110,100 G1.3 Side hardness (N) 6,230 G1.4116,550 G2.3185,900 G1.515,300 G2.09 aCompression parallel to grain is maximum crushing strength; compression perpendicular to grain is fiber stress at proportional limit. MOR is modulus of rupture; MOE, modulus of elasticity; and WML, work to maximum load. For green wood, use specific gravity based on ovendry weight and green volume; for dry wood, use specific gravity based on ovendry weight and volume at 12% moisture content. Table 4–11b. Functions relating mechanical properties to specific gravity of clear, straight-grained wood (inch–pound) Specific gravity–strength relationship Green wood Wood at 12% moisture content PropertyaSoftwoods Hardwoods Softwoods Hardwoods Static bending MOR (lb/in2) 15,890 G1.01 17,210 G1.16 24,760 G1.01 24,850 G1.13 MOE (·106 lb/in2) 2.33 G0.762.02 G0.722.97 G.0.842.39 G0.7 WML (in-lbf/in3) 21.33 G1.2133.2 G1.5225.9 G1.3431.8 G1.54 Impact bending (lbf) 79.28 G1.3594.9 G1.3977.7 G1.3995.1 G1.65 Compression parallel (lb/in2) 7,210 G0.947,110 G1.1113,590 G0.9711,030 G0.89 Compression perpendicular (lb/in2) 1,270 G1.532,680 G2.482,390 G1.573,130 G2.09 Shear parallel (lb/in2) 1,590 G0.732,580 G1.242,410 G.0.853,170 G1.13 Tension perpendicular (lb/in2) 550 G0.781,520 G1.37870 G1.111,460 G1.3 Side hardness (lbf) 1,400 G1.413,720 G2.311,930 G1.53,440 G2.09 aCompression parallel to grain is maximum crushing strength; compression perpendicular to grain is fiber stress at proportional limit. MOR is modulus of rupture; MOE, modulus of elasticity; and WML, work to maximum load. For green wood, use specific gravity based on ovendry weight and green volume; for dry wood, use specific gravity based on ovendry weight and volume at 12% moisture content. 4–29Elastic properties in directions other than along the natural axes can be obtained from elastic theory. Strength propertiesin directions ranging from parallel to perpendicular to thefibers can be approximated using a Hankinson-type formula(Bodig and Jayne 1982): NPQ PQnn= + sin cosqq (4–2) where N is strength at angle q from fiber direction, Q strength perpendicular to grain, P strength parallel to grain, and n an empirically determined constant. This formula has been used for modulus of elasticity as well as strength properties. Values of n and associated ratios of Q/P tabulated from available literature are as follows: Property n Q/P Tensile strength 1.5–2 0.04–0.07 Compression strength 2–2.5 0.03–0.40 Bending strength 1.5–2 0.04–0.10 Modulus of elasticity 2 0.04–0.12 Toughness 1.5–2 0.06–0.10The Hankinson-type formula can be graphically depicted as a function of Q/P and n. Figure 4–4 shows the strength in any direction expressed as a fraction of the strength parallel tofiber direction, plotted against angle to the fiber direction q. The plot is for a range of values of Q/P and n. The term slope of grain relates the fiber direction to the edges of a piece. Slope of grain is usually expressed by the ratiobetween 25 mm (1 in.) of the grain from the edge or longaxis of the piece and the distance in millimeters (inches)within which this deviation occurs (tan q). The effect of grain slope on some properties of wood, as determined from tests,is shown in Table 4–12. The values for modulus of rupturefall very close to the curve in Figure 4–4 for Q/P = 0.1 and n = 1.5. Similarly, the impact bending values fall close to the curve for Q/P = 0.05 and n =1.5, and the compression values for the curve for Q/P = 0.1, n = 2.5. The term cross grain indicates the condition measured by slope of grain. Two important forms of cross grain are spiraland diagonal (Fig. 4–5). Other types are wavy, dipped,interlocked, and curly. Spiral grain is caused by winding or spiral growth of wood fibers about the bole of the tree instead of vertical growth. Insawn products, spiral grain can be defined as fibers lying inthe tangential plane of the growth rings, rather than parallelto the longitudinal axis of the product (see Fig. 4–5 for asimple case). Spiral grain in sawn products often goes unde-tected by ordinary visual inspection. The best test for spiralgrain is to split a sample section from the piece in the radialdirection. A visual method of determining the presence ofspiral grain is to note the alignment of pores, rays, and resinducts on a flatsawn face. Drying checks on a flatsawn surfacefollow the fibers and indicate the slope of the fiber. Relative Figure 4–3. Types of knots. A, encased knot; B, intergrown. 1.0Fraction of property parallel to the fiber direction N/P0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 010 20 3040506070Q/P = 0.20 0.10 0.05 Angle to fiber direction (deg) Figure 4–4. Effect of grain angle on mechanical property of clear wood according to Hankinson-type formula.Q/P is ratio of mechanical property across the grain ( Q) to that parallel to the grain ( P); n is an empirically determined constant. 4–30change in electrical capacitance is an effective technique for measuring slope of grain. Diagonal grain is cross grain caused by growth rings that are not parallel to one or both surfaces of the sawn piece. Diago-nal grain is produced by sawing a log with pronounced taperparallel to the axis (pith) of the tree. Diagonal grain alsooccurs in lumber sawn from crooked logs or logs with buttswell. Cross grain can be quite localized as a result of the distur- bance of a growth pattern by a branch. This condition,termed local slope of grain, may be present even though thebranch (knot) may have been removed by sawing. The degreeof local cross grain may often be difficult to determine. Anyform of cross grain can have a deleterious effect on mechanicalproperties or machining characteristics. Spiral and diagonal grain can combine to produce a more complex cross grain. To determine net cross grain, regardlessof origin, fiber slopes on the contiguous surface of a piecemust be measured and combined. The combined slope ofgrain is determined by taking the square root of the sum ofthe squares of the two slopes. For example, assume that thespiral grain slope on the flat-grained surface of Figure 4–5Dis 1 in 12 and the diagonal-grain slope is 1 in 18. The com-bined slope is (/ ) (/ ) /11 8 11 2 11 022+= or a slope of 1 in 10. A regular reversal of right and left spiraling of grain in a tree stem produces the condition known as interlocked grain.Interlocked grain occurs in some hardwood species (Ch. 3,Table 3–9) and markedly increases resistance to splitting inthe radial plane. Interlocked grain decreases both the staticbending strength and stiffness of clear wood specimens. Thedata from tests of domestic hardwoods shown in Table 4–3do not include pieces that exhibited interlocked grain. Somemechanical property values in Table 4–5 are based on speci-mens with interlocked grain because that is a characteristic ofsome species. The presence of interlocked grain alters therelationship between bending strength and compressivestrength of lumber cut from tropical hardwoods. Annual Ring Orientation Stresses perpendicular to the fiber (grain) direction may beat any angle from 0 ° (T ) to 90 o (R) to the growth rings (Fig. 4–6). Perpendicular-to-grain properties depend some-what upon orientation of annual rings with respect to thedirection of stress. The compression perpendicular-to-grainvalues in Table 4–3 were derived from tests in which theload was applied parallel to the growth rings ( T direction); shear parallel-to-grain and tension perpendicular-to-grainvalues are averages of equal numbers of specimens with 0 o and 90o growth ring orientations. In some species, there is no difference in 0o and 90 o orientation properties. Other species exhibit slightly higher shear parallel or tension per-pendicular-to-grain properties for the 0 o orientation than forTable 4–12. Strength of wood members with various grain slopes compared with strength of a straight-grained member a Maximum slopeof grain inmemberModulus of rupture (%)Impact bending (%)Compression parallel to grain (%) Straight-grained 100 100 100 1 in 25 96 95 100 1 in 20 93 90 1001 in 15 89 81 1001 in 10 81 62 991 in 5 55 36 93 aImpact bending is height of drop causing complete failure (0.71-kg (50-lb) hammer); compression parallel to grain is maximum crushing strength. Figure 4–5. Relationship of fiber orientation (O-O) to axes, as shown by schematic of wood specimenscontaining straight grain and cross grain. Specimens Athrough D have radial and tangential surfaces;E through H do not. Specimens A and E contain nocross grain; B, D, F, and H have spiral grain;C, D, G, and H have diagonal grain. 4–31the 90o orientation; the converse is true for about an equal number of species. The effects of intermediate annual ring orientations have been studied in a limited way. Modulus of elasticity, compressiveperpendicular-to-grain stress at the proportional limit, andtensile strength perpendicular to the grain tend to be aboutthe same at 45 o and 0o, but for some species these values are 40% to 60% lower at the 45o orientation. For those species with lower properties at 45o ring orientation, properties tend to be about equal at 0o and 90o orientations. For species with about equal properties at 0o and 45o orientations, properties tend to be higher at the 90o orientation. Reaction Wood Abnormal woody tissue is frequently associated with leaningboles and crooked limbs of both conifers and hardwoods. Itis generally believed that such wood is formed as a naturalresponse of the tree to return its limbs or bole to a morenormal position, hence the term reaction wood. In soft-woods, the abnormal tissue is called compression wood; itis common to all softwood species and is found on the lowerside of the limb or inclined bole. In hardwoods, the abnor-mal tissue is known as tension wood; it is located on theupper side of the inclined member, although in some in-stances it is distributed irregularly around the cross section.Reaction wood is more prevalent in some species than inothers. Many of the anatomical, chemical, physical, and mechanical properties of reaction wood differ distinctly from those ofnormal wood. Perhaps most evident is the increase in den-sity compared with that of normal wood. The specific gravityof compression wood is commonly 30% to 40% greater thanthat of normal wood; the specific gravity of tension woodcommonly ranges between 5% and 10% greater than that ofnormal wood, but it may be as much as 30% greater. Compression wood is usually somewhat darker than normal wood because of the greater proportion of latewood, and itfrequently has a relatively lifeless appearance, especially in woods in which the transition from earlywood to latewood isabrupt. Because compression wood is more opaque thannormal wood, intermediate stages of compression wood canbe detected by transmitting light through thin cross sections;however, borderline forms of compression wood that mergewith normal wood can commonly be detected only by mi-croscopic examination. Tension wood is more difficult to detect than is compression wood. However, eccentric growth as seen on the transversesection suggests its presence. Also, because it is difficult tocleanly cut the tough tension wood fibers, the surfaces ofsawn boards are “woolly,” especially when the boards aresawn in the green condition (Fig. 4–7). In some species,tension wood may be evident on a smooth surface as areas ofcontrasting colors. Examples of this are the silvery appear-ance of tension wood in sugar maple and the darker color oftension wood in mahogany. Reaction wood, particularly compression wood in the green condition, may be stronger than normal wood. However,compared with normal wood with similar specific gravity,reaction wood is definitely weaker. Possible exceptions tothis are compression parallel-to-grain properties of compres-sion wood and impact bending properties of tension wood. Figure 4–6. Direction of load in relation to direction of annual growth rings: 90o or perpendicular ( R), 45°, 0° or parallel ( T). Figure 4–7. Projecting tension wood fibers on sawn surface of mahogany board. 4–32Because of the abnormal properties of reaction wood, it may be desirable to eliminate this wood from raw material. Inlogs, compression wood is characterized by eccentric growthabout the pith and the large proportion of latewood at thepoint of greatest eccentricity (Fig. 4–8A). Fortunately, pro-nounced compression wood in lumber can generally bedetected by ordinary visual examination. Compression and tension wood undergo extensive longitu- dinal shrinkage when subjected to moisture loss below thefiber saturation point. Longitudinal shrinkage in compressionwood may be up to 10 times that in normal wood and intension wood, perhaps up to 5 times that in normal wood.When reaction wood and normal wood are present in thesame board, unequal longitudinal shrinkage causes internalstresses that result in warping. In extreme cases, unequallongitudinal shrinkage results in axial tension failure over aportion of the cross section of the lumber (Fig. 4–8B). Warpsometimes occurs in rough lumber but more often in planed,ripped, or resawn lumber (Fig. 4–8C). Juvenile Wood Juvenile wood is the wood produced near the pith of the tree;for softwoods, it is usually defined as the material 5 to20 rings from the pith depending on species. Juvenile woodhas considerably different physical and anatomical propertiesthan that of mature wood (Fig. 4–9). In clear wood, theproperties that have been found to influence mechanicalbehavior include fibril angle, cell length, and specific gravity,the latter a composite of percentage of latewood, cell wallthickness, and lumen diameter. Juvenile wood has a highfibril angle (angle between longitudinal axis of wood celland cellulose fibrils), which causes longitudinal shrinkage that may be more than 10 times that of mature wood. Com-pression wood and spiral grain are also more prevalent injuvenile wood than in mature wood and contribute to longi-tudinal shrinkage. In structural lumber, the ratio of modulusof rupture, ultimate tensile stress, and modulus of elasticityfor juvenile to mature wood ranges from 0.5 to 0.9, 0.5 to0.95, and 0.45 to 0.75, respectively. Changes in shearstrength resulting from increases in juvenile wood contentcan be adequately predicted by monitoring changes in den-sity alone for all annual ring orientations. The same is truefor perpendicular-to-grain compressive strength when the loadis applied in the tangential direction. Compressive strengthperpendicular-to-grain for loads applied in the radial direc-tion, however, is more sensitive to changes in juvenile woodcontent and may be up to eight times less than that sug-gested by changes in density alone. The juvenile wood tomature wood ratio is lower for higher grades of lumber thanfor lower grades, which indicates that juvenile wood hasgreater influence in reducing the mechanical properties ofhigh-grade structural lumber. Only a limited amount ofresearch has been done on juvenile wood in hardwoodspecies. Figure 4–8. Effects of compression wood. A, eccentric growth about pith in cross section containing compres-sion wood—dark area in lower third of cross section iscompression wood; B, axial tension break caused byexcessive longitudinal shrinkage of compression wood;C, warp caused by excessive longitudinal shrinkage. Fibril angle Longitudinal shrinkageMoisture contentSpiral grainSpecific gravity Cell lengthStrengthCell wall thicknessTransverse shrinkagePercentage latewood Juvenile woodMature wood Juvenile woodMature wood Pith 5-20 rings Bark Figure 4–9. Properties of juvenile wood. 4–33Compression Failures Excessive compressive stresses along the grain that produce minute compression failures can be caused by excessivebending of standing trees from wind or snow; felling of treesacross boulders, logs, or irregularities in the ground; orrough handling of logs or lumber. Compression failuresshould not be confused with compression wood. In someinstances, compression failures are visible on the surface ofa board as minute lines or zones formed by crumpling orbuckling of cells (Fig. 4–10A), although the failures usuallyappear as white lines or may even be invisible to the nakedeye. The presence of compression failures may be indicatedby fiber breakage on end grain (Fig. 4–10B). Since compres-sion failures are often difficult to detect with the unaided eye,special efforts, including optimum lighting, may be requiredfor detection. The most difficult cases are detected only bymicroscopic examination.Products containing visible compression failures have low strength properties, especially in tensile strength and shockresistance. The tensile strength of wood containing compres-sion failures may be as low as one-third the strength ofmatched clear wood. Even slight compression failures, visi-ble only under a microscope, may seriously reduce strengthand cause brittle fracture. Because of the low strength associ-ated with compression failures, many safety codes requirecertain structural members, such as ladder rails and scaffoldplanks, to be entirely free of such failures. Pitch Pockets A pitch pocket is a well-defined opening that contains freeresin. The pocket extends parallel to the annual rings; it isalmost flat on the pith side and curved on the bark side.Pitch pockets are confined to such species as the pines,spruces, Douglas-fir, tamarack, and western larch. The effect of pitch pockets on strength depends upon their number, size, and location in the piece. A large number ofpitch pockets indicates a lack of bond between annual growthlayers, and a piece with pitch pockets should be inspected forshake or separation along the grain. Bird Peck Maple, hickory, white ash, and a number of other species areoften damaged by small holes made by woodpeckers.These bird pecks often occur in horizontal rows, sometimesencircling the tree, and a brown or black discoloration knownas a mineral streak originates from each hole. Holes for tap-ping maple trees are also a source of mineral streaks. Thestreaks are caused by oxidation and other chemical changesin the wood. Bird pecks and mineral streaks are not generallyimportant in regard to strength of structural lumber, althoughthey do impair the appearance of the wood. Extractives Many wood species contain removable extraneous materialsor extractives that do not degrade the cellulose–lignin struc-ture of the wood. These extractives are especially abundant inspecies such as larch, redwood, western redcedar, and blacklocust. A small decrease in modulus of rupture and strength in compression parallel to grain has been measured for somespecies after the extractives have been removed. The extent towhich extractives influence strength is apparently a functionof the amount of extractives, the moisture content of thepiece, and the mechanical property under consideration. Properties of Timber From Dead Trees Timber from trees killed by insects, blight, wind, or fire maybe as good for any structural purpose as that from live trees,provided further insect attack, staining, decay, or dryingdegrade has not occurred. In a living tree, the heartwood isentirely dead and only a comparatively few sapwood cells arealive. Therefore, most wood is dead when cut, regardless of Figure 4–10. Compression failures. A, compression failure shown by irregular lines across grain; B, fiberbreakage in end-grain surfaces of spruce lumber causedby compression failures below dark line. 4–34whether the tree itself is living or not. However, if a tree stands on the stump too long after its death, the sapwood islikely to decay or to be attacked severely by wood-boringinsects, and eventually the heartwood will be similarlyaffected. Such deterioration also occurs in logs that have beencut from live trees and improperly cared for afterwards. Be-cause of variations in climatic and other factors that affectdeterioration, the time that dead timber may stand or lie inthe forest without serious deterioration varies. Tests on wood from trees that had stood as long as 15 years after being killed by fire demonstrated that this wood was assound and strong as wood from live trees. Also, the heart-wood of logs of some more durable species has been found tobe thoroughly sound after lying in the forest for many years. On the other hand, in nonresistant species, decay may cause great loss of strength within a very brief time, both in treesstanding dead on the stump and in logs cut from live treesand allowed to lie on the ground. The important considera-tion is not whether the trees from which wood products arecut are alive or dead, but whether the products themselves arefree from decay or other degrading factors that would renderthem unsuitable for use. Effects of Manufacturing and Service Environments Moisture Content Many mechanical properties are affected by changes in mois- ture content below the fiber saturation point. Most propertiesreported in Tables 4–3, 4–4, and 4–5 increase with decreasein moisture content. The relationship that describes thesechanges in clear wood property at about 21ºC (70ºF) is PPP PM M =æ Łçö ł÷- -æ Łçö ł÷ 1212 g12 12p (4–3) where P is the property at moisture content M (%), P12 the same property at 12% MC, Pg the same property for green wood, and Mp moisture content at the intersection of a horizontal line representing the strength of green wood andan inclined line representing the logarithm of the strength–moisture content relationship for dry wood. This assumedlinear relationship results in an M p value that is slightly less than the fiber saturation point. Table 4–13 gives values of Mp for a few species; for other species, Mp = 25 may be assumed. Average property values of P12 and Pg are given for many species in Tables 4–3 to 4–5. The formula for moisturecontent adjustment is not recommended for work to maxi-mum load, impact bending, and tension perpendicular tograin. These properties are known to be erratic in theirresponse to moisture content change. The formula can be used to estimate a property at any mois- ture content below M p from the species data given. Forexample, suppose you want to find the modulus of rupture of white ash at 8% moisture content. Using information fromTables 4–3a and 4–13, P841 2 103 000103 000 66 000119 500 =Ø ºŒø ßœ= ,, ,,/ kPa Care should be exercised when adjusting properties below 12% moisture. Although most properties will continue toincrease while wood is dried to very low moisture contentlevels, for most species some properties may reach amaximum value and then decrease with further drying(Fig. 4–11). For clear Southern Pine, the moisture contentat which a maximum property has been observed is givenin Table 4–14. This increase in mechanical properties with drying assumes small, clear specimens in a drying process in which nodeterioration of the product (degrade) occurs. For 51-mm-(2-in.-) thick lumber containing knots, the increase in prop-erty with decreasing moisture content is dependent uponlumber quality. Clear, straight-grained lumber may showincreases in properties with decreasing moisture content thatapproximate those of small, clear specimens. However, as thefrequency and size of knots increase, the reduction in strengthresulting from the knots begins to negate the increase inproperty in the clear wood portion of the lumber. Very lowquality lumber, which has many large knots, may be insensi-tive to changes in moisture content. Figures 4–12 and 4–13illustrate the effect of moisture content on the properties oflumber as a function of initial lumber strength (Green andothers 1989). Application of these results in adjusting allow-able properties of lumber is discussed in Chapter 6. Additional information on influences of moisture content on dimensional stability is included in Chapter 12.Table 4–13. Intersection moisture content values for selected speciesa Mp Species (%) Ash, white 24 Birch, yellow 27 Chestnut, American 24Douglas-fir 24Hemlock, western 28Larch, western 28Pine, loblolly 21Pine, longleaf 21Pine, red 24Redwood 21Spruce, red 27Spruce, Sitka 27Tamarack 24 aIntersection moisture content is point at which mechanical properties begin to change when wood is dried from the green condition. 4–35Temperature Reversible Effects In general, the mechanical properties of wood decrease when heated and increase when cooled. At a constant moisturecontent and below approximately 150ºC (302ºF), mechanicalproperties are approximately linearly related to temperature.The change in properties that occurs when wood is quicklyheated or cooled and then tested at that condition is termedan immediate effect. At temperatures below 100ºC (212ºF),the immediate effect is essentially reversible; that is, theproperty will return to the value at the original temperatureif the temperature change is rapid. Figure 4–14 illustrates the immediate effect of temperature on modulus of elasticity parallel to grain, modulus of rupture,and compression parallel to grain, 20 oC (68oF), based on a composite of results for clear, defect-free wood. This figurerepresents an interpretation of data from several investigators.The width of the bands illustrates variability between and within reported trends. Table 4–15 lists changes in clear wood properties at -50 oC (-58oF) and 50oC (122oF) relative to those at 20oC (68oF) for a number of moisture conditions. The large changes at-50 oC (-58oF) for green wood (at fiber saturation point or wetter) reflect the presence of ice in the wood cell cavities. The strength of dry lumber, at about 12% moisture content, may change little as temperature increases from -29oC (-20oF) to 38oC (100oF). For green lumber, strength gener- ally decreases with increasing temperature. However, fortemperatures between about 7 oC (45oF) and 38oC (100oF), the changes may not differ significantly from those at roomtemperature. Table 4–16 provides equations that have beenProperty (MPa) Property (x103 lbf/in2)22.0 150 120 90 60 30 051015202530 Moisture content (%)16.5 11.0 5.5A B C D E0 Figure 4–11. Effect of moisture content on wood strength properties. A, tension parallel to grain;B, bending; C, compression parallel to grain;D, compression perpendicular to grain; andE, tension perpendicular to grain. Table 4–14. Moisture content for maximum property value in drying clear Southern Pine from green to4% moisture content PropertyMoisture content at which peak property occurs (%) Ultimate tensile stress parallel to grain 12.6 Ultimate tensile stress perpendicular to grain 10.2 MOE tension perpendicular to grain 4.3MOE compression parallel to grain 4.3Modulus of rigidity, G RT 10.0120 80 40 0Ultimate tensile stress (MPa)16 Ultimate tensile stress (x103 lbf/in2) 12 8 4 0 8 12 16 20 24 Moisture content (%) Figure 4–12. Effect of moisture content on tensile strength of lumber parallel to grain. 12 8 4 090 60 30 0 8 12 16 20 24 Ultimate compressive strength (x103 lbf/in2)Ultimate compressive strength (MPa) Moisture content (%) Figure 4–13. Effect of moisture content on compressive strength of lumber parallel to grain. 4–36used to adjust some lumber properties for the reversible effects of temperature. Irreversible Effects In addition to the reversible effect of temperature on wood, there is an irreversible effect at elevated temperature. Thispermanent effect is one of degradation of wood substance,which results in loss of weight and strength. The loss de-pends on factors that include moisture content, heating me-dium, temperature, exposure period, and to some extent,species and size of piece involved. The permanent decrease of modulus of rupture caused by heating in steam and water is shown as a function of tempera-ture and heating time in Figure 4–15, based on tests of clearpieces of Douglas-fir and Sitka spruce. In the same studies,heating in water affected work to maximum load more thanmodulus of rupture (Fig. 4–16). The effect of heating drywood (0% moisture content) on modulus of rupture andmodulus of elasticity is shown in Figures 4–17 and 4–18,respectively, as derived from tests on four softwoods and twohardwoods. 200 150 100 50 0Relative modulus of elasticity (%) -200 -100 0 100 200 30012% moisture content 0% moisture content(a) Relative modulus of rupture (%)250 200 150 100 50 0 -200 -100-150 -50050 100 15018% moisture content 0% moisture content12% moisture content(b) 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 -200 -100 0100 200 30012% moisture content 0% moisture content Temperature ( °C)Relative compressive strength (%)(c) Figure 4–14. Immediate effect of temperature at two moisture content levels relative to value at 20 °C (68°F) for clear, defect-free wood: (a) modulus of elasticityparallel to grain, (b) modulus of rupture in bending,(c) compressive strength parallel to grain. The plot is acomposite of results from several studies. Variabilityin reported trends is illustrated by width of bands.Table 4–15. Approximate middle-trend effects of temperature on mechanical properties of clear woodat various moisture conditions Relative change in mechanical property from 20°C (68°F) at Moisture conditiona-50°C (-58°F)+50°C (+122°F) Property (%) (%) (%) MOE parallel to grain 0 +11 -6 12 +17 -7 >FSP +50 — MOE perpendicular to grain 6 — -20 12 — -35 ‡20 — -38 Shear modulus >FSP — -25 Bending strength £4 +18 -10 11–15 +35 -20 18–20 +60 -25 >FSP +110 -25 Tensile strength parallel to grain 0–12 — -4 Compressive strength parallel 0 +20 -10 to grain 12–45 +50 -25 Shear strength parallel to grain >FSP — -25 Tensile strength perpendicular 4–6 — -10 to grain 11–16 — -20 ‡18 — -30 Compressive strength perpen- dicular to grain at proportionallimit0–6 ‡10— —-20 -35 aFSP indicates moisture content greater than fiber saturation point. 4–37Figure 4–19 illustrates the permanent loss in bending strength of Spruce–Pine–Fir standard 38- by 89-mm(nominal 2- by 4-in.) lumber heated at 66 oC (150oF) and about 12% moisture content. During this same period,modulus of elasticity barely changed. Most in-serviceexposures at 66 °C (150°F) would be expected to result in much lower moisture content levels. Additional results forother lumber products and exposure conditions will be re-ported as Forest Products Laboratory studies progress. The permanent property losses discussed here are based on tests conducted after the specimens were cooled to roomtemperature and conditioned to a range of 7% to 12% mois-ture content. If specimens are tested hot, the percentage ofstrength reduction resulting from permanent effects is basedon values already reduced by the immediate effects. Repeatedexposure to elevated temperature has a cumulative effect onwood properties. For example, at a given temperature theproperty loss will be about the same after six 1-month expo-sure as it would be after a single 6-month exposure. The shape and size of wood pieces are important in analyzing the influence of temperature. If exposure is for only a shorttime, so that the inner parts of a large piece do not reach thetemperature of the surrounding medium, the immediate effecton strength of the inner parts will be less than that for theouter parts. However, the type of loading must be consid-ered. If the member is to be stressed in bending, the outerfibers of a piece will be subjected to the greatest stress andwill ordinarily govern the ultimate strength of the piece;hence, under this loading condition, the fact that the innerpart is at a lower temperature may be of little significance. For extended noncyclic exposures, it can be assumed that the entire piece reaches the temperature of the heating mediumand will therefore be subject to permanent strength lossesthroughout the volume of the piece, regardless of size andmode of stress application. However, in ordinary construc-tion wood often will not reach the daily temperature extremesof the air around it; thus, long-term effects should be basedon the accumulated temperature experience of criticalstructural parts.Time Under Load Rate of Loading Mechanical property values, as given in Tables 4–3, 4–4, and 4–5, are usually referred to as static strength values.Static strength tests are typically conducted at a rate of load-ing or rate of deformation to attain maximum load in about5 min. Higher values of strength are obtained for woodloaded at a more rapid rate and lower values are obtained atslower rates. For example, the load required to producefailure in a wood member in 1 s is approximately 10%higher than that obtained in a standard static strength test.Over several orders of magnitude of rate of loading, strengthis approximately an exponential function of rate. SeeChapter 6 for application to treated woods. Figure 4–20 illustrates how strength decreases with time to maximum load. The variability in the trend shown is basedon results from several studies pertaining to bending, com-pression, and shear. Creep and Relaxation When initially loaded, a wood member deforms elastically. If the load is maintained, additional time-dependent deforma-tion occurs. This is called creep. Creep occurs at even verylow stresses, and it will continue over a period of years. Forsufficiently high stresses, failure eventually occurs. Thisfailure phenomenon, called duration of load (or creeprupture), is discussed in the next section. At typical design levels and use environments, after several years the additional deformation caused by creep mayapproximately equal the initial, instantaneous elasticdeformation. For illustration, a creep curve based on creep asa function of initial deflection (relative creep) at several stresslevels is shown in Figure 4–21; creep is greater under higherstresses than under lower ones.Table 4–16. Percentage change in bending properties of lumber with change in temperaturea Lumber Moisture((P–P70) / P70)100 = A + BT + CT 2 Temperature range Property gradebcontent AB C T min Tmax MOE All Green 22.0350 -0.4578 0 0 32 Green 13.1215 -0.1793 0 32 150 12% 7.8553 -0.1108 0 -15 150 MOR SS Green 34.13 -0.937 0.0043 -20 46 Green 0 0 0 46 100 12% 0 0 0 -20 100 No. 2 Green 56.89 -1.562 0.0072 -20 46 or less Green 0 0 0 46 100 Dry 0 0 0 -20 100 aFor equation, P is property at temperature T in °F; P70, property at 21 °C (70°F). bSS is Select Structural. 4–38Ordinary climatic variations in temperature and humidity will cause creep to increase. An increase of about 28oC (50oF) in temperature can cause a two- to threefold increase in creep.Green wood may creep four to six times the initial deforma-tion as it dries under load. Unloading a member results in immediate and complete recovery of the original elastic deformation and after time, arecovery of approximately one-half the creep at deformation aswell. Fluctuations in temperature and humidity increase themagnitude of the recovered deformation.Relative creep at low stress levels is similar in bending, tension, or compression parallel to grain, although it may besomewhat less in tension than in bending or compressionunder varying moisture conditions. Relative creep across thegrain is qualitatively similar to, but likely to be greater than,creep parallel to the grain. The creep behavior of all speciesstudied is approximately the same. If instead of controlling load or stress, a constant deformation is imposed and maintained on a wood member, the initialstress relaxes at a decreasing rate to about 60% to 70% of itsoriginal value within a few months. This reduction of stresswith time is commonly called relaxation.120°C (250°F)100 Modulus of rupture (percentage of value at 26.7 °C (80° F))93°C (200°F) 150°C (300°F) 175°C (350°F) Heating period (h)0 8 16 24 3290 8070 60 50 40 Figure 4–15. Permanent effect of heating in water (solid line) and steam (dashed line) on modulus of rup-ture of clear, defect-free wood. All data based on testsof Douglas-fir and Sitka spruce at room temperature. Modulus of rupture Work66°C (150°F) 93°C (200°F)Property (percentage of untreated controls)100 90 80 70 60 50 050100150200250 300 Heating period (days) Figure 4–16. Permanent effect of heating in water on work to maximum load and modulus of rupture of clear,defect-free wood. All data based on tests of Douglas-firand Sitka spruce at room temperature.100Modulus of rupture (percentage of untreated controls)7090 80 60 50 40 050 100 150 200 250 300 Time of exposure (days)155°C (310°F)115°C (240°F) 135°C (275°F) 175°C (350°F) Figure 4–17. Permanent effect of oven heating at four temperatures on modulus of rupture, based on clearpieces of four softwood and two hardwood species.All tests conducted at room temperature. 115°C (240°F) 135°C (275°F) 155°C (310°F) 175°C (350°F)104 102 100 98 96 94 92 90 88 050100150200250300 Time of exposure (days)Modulus of elasticity (percentage of untreated controls) Figure 4–18. Permanent effect of oven heating at four temperatures on modulus of elasticity, based on clearpieces of four softwood and two hardwood species.All tests conducted at room temperature. 4–39In limited bending tests carried out between approximately 18oC (64oF) and 49oC (120oF) over 2 to 3 months, the curve of stress as a function of time that expresses relaxation isapproximately the mirror image of the creep curve(deformation as a function of time). These tests were carriedout at initial stresses up to about 50% of the bendingstrength of the wood. As with creep, relaxation is markedlyaffected by fluctuations in temperature and humidity. Duration of Load The duration of load, or the time during which a load acts on a wood member either continuously or intermittently, is animportant factor in determining the load that the member can safely carry. The duration of load may be affected by changesin temperature and relative humidity. The constant stress that a wood member can sustain is ap- proximately an exponential function of time to failure, asillustrated in Figure 4–22. This relationship is a compositeof results of studies on small, clear wood specimens, con-ducted at constant temperature and relative humidity.1.0 0.90.80.70.60.5MOR after exposure/MOR of controls 0 12 24 36 48 60 72 Exposure time (months)2100f-1.8E1650f-1.5E Figure 4–19. Permanent effect of heating at 66 °C (150°F) on modulus of rupture for two grades of machine-stress-rated Spruce–Pine–Fir lumber at 12% moisture content.All tests conducted at room temperature. 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 10-2102104106108100Ultimate stress (percentage of static strength) Time to ultimate stress (s)»12% moisture content Figure 4–20. Relationship of ultimate stress at short- time loading to that at 5-min loading, based on com-posite of results from rate-of-load studies on bending,compression, and shear parallel to grain. Variabilityin reported trends is indicated by width of band.2 1 0Creep deflection (multiple of initial deflection) MPa x103 lbf/in2 3.4 0.5 6.9 1.013.8 2.027.6 4.0 100 200 300 400 500 Time under load (days)Stress Figure 4–21. Influence of four levels of stress on creep (Kingston 1962). 6% and 12% moisture content Time to failure (h)Constant stress (percentage of static strength) 10-610-410-2100102104106120 100 80 60 40 20 0 Figure 4–22. Relationship between stress due to constant load and time to failure for small clear wood specimens,based on 28 s at 100% stress. The figure is a compositeof trends from several studies; most studies involvedbending but some involved compression parallel to grainand bending perpendicular to grain. Variability inreported trends is indicated by width of band. 4–40For a member that continuously carries a load for a long period, the load required to produce failure is much less thanthat determined from the strength properties in Tables 4–3 to4–5. Based on Figure 4–22, a wood member under thecontinuous action of bending stress for 10 years may carryonly 60% (or perhaps less) of the load required to producefailure in the same specimen loaded in a standard bendingstrength test of only a few minutes duration. Conversely, ifthe duration of load is very short, the load-carrying capacitymay be higher than that determined from strength propertiesgiven in the tables. Time under intermittent loading has a cumulative effect. In tests where a constant load was periodically placed on abeam and then removed, the cumulative time the load wasactually applied to the beam before failure was essentiallyequal to the time to failure for a similar beam under the sameload applied continuously. The time to failure under continuous or intermittent loading is looked upon as a creep–rupture process; a member has toundergo substantial deformation before failure. Deformation atfailure is approximately the same for duration of load tests asfor standard strength tests. Changes in climatic conditions increase the rate of creep and shorten the duration during which a member can support agiven load. This effect can be substantial for very small woodspecimens under large cyclic changes in temperature andrelative humidity. Fortunately, changes in temperature andrelative humidity are moderate for wood in the typical serviceenvironment. Fatigue In engineering, the term fatigue is defined as the progressive damage that occurs in a material subjected to cyclic loading.This loading may be repeated (stresses of the same sign; thatis, always compression or always tension) or reversed(stresses of alternating compression and tension). Whensufficiently high and repetitious, cyclic loading stresses canresult in fatigue failure. Fatigue life is a term used to define the number of cycles that are sustained before failure. Fatigue strength, the maximumstress attained in the stress cycle used to determine fatiguelife, is approximately exponentially related to fatigue life;that is, fatigue strength decreases approximately linearly asthe logarithm of number of cycles increases. Fatigue strengthand fatigue life also depend on several other factors: frequencyof cycling; repetition or reversal of loading; range factor (ratioof minimum to maximum stress per cycle); and other factorssuch as temperature, moisture content, and specimen size.Negative range factors imply repeated reversing loads,whereas positive range factors imply nonreversing loads. Results from several fatigue studies on wood are given in Table 4–17. Most of these results are for repeated loadingwith a range ratio of 0.1, meaning that the minimum stressper cycle is 10% of the maximum stress. The maximumstress per cycle, expressed as a percentage of estimated staticstrength, is associated with the fatigue life given in millions of cycles. The first three lines of data, which list the samecyclic frequency (30 Hz), demonstrate the effect of range ratioon fatigue strength (maximum fatigue stress that can bemaintained for a given fatigue life); fatigue bending strengthdecreases as range ratio decreases. Third-point bending re-sults show the effect of small knots or slope of grain onfatigue strength at a range ratio of 0.1 and frequency of8.33 Hz. Fatigue strength is lower for wood containing smallknots or a 1-in-12 slope of grain than for clear straight-grained wood and even lower for wood containing a combi-nation of small knots and a 1-in-12 slope of grain. Fatiguestrength is the same for a scarf joint in tension as for tensionparallel to the grain, but a little lower for a finger joint intension. Fatigue strength is slightly lower in shear than intension parallel to the grain. Other comparisons do not havemuch meaning because range ratios or cyclic frequency differ;however, fatigue strength is high in compression parallel tothe grain compared with other properties. Little is knownabout other factors that may affect fatigue strength in wood. Creep, temperature rise, and loss of moisture content occur in tests of wood for fatigue strength. At stresses that causefailure in about 106 cycles at 40 Hz, a temperature rise ofTable 4–17. Summary of reported results on cyclic fatiguea RangeCyclic fre- quencyMaximum stress per cyclebApproxi- mate fatigue life Property ratio (Hz) (%) ( ·106 cycles) Bending, clear, straight grain Cantilever 0.45 30 45 30 Cantilever 0 30 40 30Cantilever -1.0 30 30 30 Center-point -1.0 40 30 4 Rotational -1.0 — 28 30 Third-point 0.1 8-1/3 60 2 Bending, third-point Small knots 0.1 8-1/3 50 2 Clear, 1:12 slope of grain0.1 8-1/3 50 2 Small knots, 1:12 slope of grain0.1 8-1/3 40 2 Tension parallel to grainClear, straight grain 0.1 15 50 30Clear, straight grain 0 40 60 3.5Scarf joint 0.1 15 50 30Finger joint 0.1 15 40 30 Compression parallel to grain Clear, straight grain 0.1 40 75 3.5 Shear parallel to grain Glue-laminated 0.1 15 45 30 aInitial moisture content about 12% to 15%. bPercentage of estimated static strength. 4–4115oC (27oF) has been reported for parallel-to-grain compres- sion fatigue (range ratio slightly greater than zero), parallel-to-grain tension fatigue (range ratio = 0), and reversed bend-ing fatigue (range ratio = -1). The rate of temperature rise is high initially but then diminishes to moderate; a moderaterate of temperature rise remains more or less constant duringa large percentage of fatigue life. During the latter stages offatigue life, the rate of temperature rise increases until failureoccurs. Smaller rises in temperature would be expected forslower cyclic loading or lower stresses. Decreases in mois-ture content are probably related to temperature rise. Aging In relatively dry and moderate temperature conditions wherewood is protected from deteriorating influences such as de-cay, the mechanical properties of wood show little changewith time. Test results for very old timbers suggest thatsignificant losses in clear wood strength occur only afterseveral centuries of normal aging conditions. The soundnessof centuries-old wood in some standing trees (redwood, forexample) also attests to the durability of wood. Exposure to Chemicals The effect of chemical solutions on mechanical propertiesdepends on the specific type of chemical. Nonswelling liq-uids, such as petroleum oils and creosote, have no apprecia-ble effect on properties. Properties are lowered in the presenceof water, alcohol, or other wood-swelling organic liquidseven though these liquids do not chemically degrade thewood substance. The loss in properties depends largely onthe amount of swelling, and this loss is regained upon re-moval of the swelling liquid. Anhydrous ammonia markedlyreduces the strength and stiffness of wood, but these proper-ties are regained to a great extent when the ammonia isremoved. Heartwood generally is less affected than sapwoodbecause it is more impermeable. Accordingly, wood treat-ments that retard liquid penetration usually enhance naturalresistance to chemicals. Chemical solutions that decompose wood substance (by hydrolysis or oxidation) have a permanent effect on strength.The following generalizations summarize the effect ofchemicals: • Some species are quite resistant to attack by dilute mineral and organic acids. • Oxidizing acids such as nitric acid degrade wood more than do nonoxidizing acids. • Alkaline solutions are more destructive than are acidic solutions. • Hardwoods are more susceptible to attack by both acids and alkalis than are softwoods. • Heartwood is less susceptible to attack by both acids and alkalis than is sapwood. Because both species and application are extremely impor- tant, reference to industrial sources with a specific history ofuse is recommended where possible. For example, large cypress tanks have survived long continuous use whereexposure conditions involved mixed acids at the boilingpoint. Wood is also used extensively in cooling towersbecause of its superior resistance to mild acids and solutionsof acidic salts. Chemical Treatment Wood is often treated with chemicals to enhance its fireperformance or decay resistance in service. Each set oftreatment chemicals and processes has a unique effect on themechanical properties of the treated wood. Fire-retardant treatments and treatment methods distinctly reduce the mechanical properties of wood. Some fire-retardant-treated products have experienced significant in-service degradation on exposure to elevated temperatureswhen used as plywood roof sheathing or roof-truss lumber.New performance requirements within standards set by theAmerican Standards for Testing and Materials (ASTM) andAmerican Wood Preservers’ Association (AWPA) precludecommercialization of inadequately performing fire-retardant-treated products. Although preservative treatments and treatment methods generally reduce the mechanical properties of wood, anyinitial loss in strength from treatment must be balancedagainst the progressive loss of strength from decay whenuntreated wood is placed in wet conditions. The effects ofpreservative treatments on mechanical properties are directlyrelated to wood quality, size, and various pretreatment,treatment, and post-treatment processing factors. The keyfactors include preservative chemistry or chemical type,preservative retention, initial kiln-drying temperature, post-treatment drying temperature, and pretreatment incising (ifrequired). North American design guidelines address theeffects of incising on mechanical properties of refractory woodspecies and the short-term duration-of-load adjustments forall treated lumber. These guidelines are described inChapter 6. Oil-Type Preservatives Oil-type preservatives cause no appreciable strength loss because they do not chemically react with wood cell wallcomponents. However, treatment with oil-type preservativescan adversely affect strength if extreme in-retort seasoningparameters are used (for example, Boultonizing, steaming, orvapor drying conditions) or if excessive temperatures orpressures are used during the treating process. To precludestrength loss, the user should follow specific treatment proc-essing requirements as described in the treatment standards. Waterborne Preservatives Waterborne preservative treatments can reduce the mechanical properties of wood. Treatment standards include specificprocessing requirements intended to prevent or limit strengthreductions resulting from the chemicals and the waterbornepreservative treatment process. The effects of waterbornepreservative treatment on mechanical properties are related to 4–42species, mechanical properties, preservative chemistry or type, preservative retention, post-treatment drying tempera-ture, size and grade of material, product type, initial kiln-drying temperature, incising, and both temperature andmoisture in service. Species —The magnitude of the effect of various water- borne preservatives on mechanical properties does not appear to vary greatly between different species. Mechanical property —Waterborne preservatives affect each mechanical property differently. If treated according to AWPA standards, the effects are as follows: modulus ofelasticity (MOE), compressive strength parallel to grain,and compressive stress perpendicular to grain are unaffectedor slightly increased; modulus of rupture (MOR) and ten-sile strength parallel to grain are reduced from 0% to 20%,depending on chemical retention and severity of redryingtemperature; and energy-related properties (for example,work to maximum load and impact strength) are reducedfrom 10% to 50%. Preservative chemistry or type —Waterborne preservative chemical systems differ in regard to their effect on strength, but the magnitude of these differences is slight comparedwith the effects of treatment processing factors. Chemistry-related differences seem to be related to the reactivity of thewaterborne preservative and the temperature during thefixation/precipitation reaction with wood. Retention —Waterborne preservative retention levels of £16 kg/m3 (£1.0 lb/ft3) have no effect on MOE or compres- sive strength parallel to grain and a slight negative effect(-5% to -10%) on tensile or bending strength. However, energy-related properties are often reduced from 15% to30%. At a retention level of 40 kg/m 3 (2.5 lb/ft3), MOR and energy-related properties are further reduced. Post-treatment drying temperature —Air drying after treatment causes no significant reduction in the static strength of wood treated with waterborne preservative at aretention level of 16 kg/m 3 (1.0 lb/ft3). However, energy- related properties are reduced. The post-treatment redryingtemperature used for material treated with waterborne pre-servative has been found to be critical when temperaturesexceed 75 oC (167 oF). Redrying limitations in treatment standards have precluded the need for an across-the-boarddesign adjustment factor for waterborne-preservative-treatedlumber in engineering design standards. The limitation onpost-treatment kiln-drying temperature is set at 74 oC (165oF). Size of material —Generally, larger material, specifically thicker, appears to undergo less reduction in strength than does smaller material. Recalling that preservative treat-ments usually penetrate the treated material to a depth ofonly 6 to 51 mm (0.25 to 2.0 in.), depending on speciesand other factors, the difference in size effect appears to bea function of the product’s surface-to-volume ratio, whichaffects the relative ratio of treatment-induced weight gain to original wood weight. Grade of material —The effect of waterborne preservative treatment is a quality-dependent phenomenon. Higher grades of wood are more affected than lower grades. Whenviewed over a range of quality levels, higher quality lum-ber is reduced in strength to a proportionately greaterextent than is lower quality lumber. Product type —The magnitude of the treatment effect on strength for laminated veneer lumber conforms closely to effects noted for higher grades of solid-sawn lumber. Theeffects of waterborne preservative treatment on plywoodseem comparable to that on lumber. Fiber-based compositeproducts may be reduced in strength to a greater extentthan is lumber. This additional effect on fiber-based com-posites may be more a function of internal bond damagecaused by waterborne-treatment-induced swelling ratherthan actual chemical hydrolysis. Initial kiln-drying temperature —Although initial kiln drying of some lumber species at 100oC to 116oC (212oF to 240oF) for short durations has little effect on structural properties, such drying results in more hydrolytic degrada-tion of the cell wall than does drying at lower temperaturekiln schedules. Subsequent preservative treatment andredrying of material initially dried at high temperaturescauses additional hydrolytic degradation. When the mate-rial is subsequently treated, initial kiln drying at 113 oC (235oF) has been shown to result in greater reductions over the entire bending and tensile strength distributions thandoes initial kiln drying at 91 oC (196oF). Because Southern Pine lumber, the most widely treated product, is most of-ten initially kiln dried at dry-bulb temperatures near orabove 113 oC (235oF), treatment standards have imposed a maximum redrying temperature limit of 74oC (165oF) to preclude the cumulative effect of thermal processing. Incising— Incising, a pretreatment mechanical process in which small slits (incisions) are punched in the surface ofthe wood product, is used to improve preservative penetra-tion and distribution in difficult-to-treat species. Incisingmay reduce strength; however, because the increase intreatability provides a substantial increase in biologicalperformance, this strength loss must be balanced againstthe progressive loss in strength of untreated wood from theincidence of decay. Most incising patterns induce somestrength loss, and the magnitude of this effect is related tothe size of material being incised and the incision depthand density (that is, number of incisions per unit area).In less than 50 mm (2 in.) thick, dry lumber, incising andpreservative treatment induces losses in MOE of 5% to15% and in static strength properties of 20% to 30%. In-cising and treating timbers or tie stock at an incision den-sity of £1,500 incisions/m 2 (£140 incisions/ft2) and to a depth of 19 mm (0.75 in.) reduces strength by 5% to 10%. 4–43In-service temperature —Both fire-retardant and preserva- tive treatments accelerate the thermal degradation of bending strength of lumber when exposed to temperaturesabove 54˚C (130˚F). In-service moisture content —Current design values apply to material dried to £19% maximum (15% average) mois- ture content or to green material. No differences in strengthhave been found between treated and untreated materialwhen tested green or at moisture contents above 12%.When very dry treated lumber of high grade was tested at10% moisture content, its bending strength was reducedcompared with that of matched dry untreated lumber. Duration of load —When subjected to impact loads, wood treated with chromated copper arsenate (CCA) doesnot exhibit the same increase in strength as that exhibitedby untreated wood. However, when loaded over a longperiod, treated and untreated wood behave similarly. Polymerization Wood is also sometimes impregnated with monomers, such as methyl methacrylate, which are subsequently polymerized.Many of the mechanical properties of the resultant wood–plastic composite are higher than those of the original wood,generally as a result of filling the void spaces in the woodstructure with plastic. The polymerization process and boththe chemical nature and quantity of monomers influencecomposite properties. Nuclear Radiation Wood is occasionally subjected to nuclear radiation. Exam-ples are wooden structures closely associated with nuclearreactors, the polymerization of wood with plastic usingnuclear radiation, and nondestructive estimation of wooddensity and moisture content. Very large doses of gammarays or neutrons can cause substantial degradation of wood.In general, irradiation with gamma rays in doses up to about1 megarad has little effect on the strength properties of wood.As dosage exceeds 1 megarad, tensile strength parallel tograin and toughness decrease. At a dosage of 300 megarads,tensile strength is reduced about 90%. Gamma rays alsoaffect compressive strength parallel to grain at a dosage above1 megarad, but higher dosage has a greater effect on tensilestrength than on compressive strength; only approximatelyone-third of compressive strength is lost when the total doseis 300 megarads. Effects of gamma rays on bending and shearstrength are intermediate between the effects on tensile andcompressive strength. Mold and Stain Fungi Mold and stain fungi do not seriously affect most mechanicalproperties of wood because such fungi feed on substanceswithin the cell cavity or attached to the cell wall rather thanon the structural wall itself. The duration of infection and thespecies of fungi involved are important factors in determiningthe extent of degradation.Although low levels of biological stain cause little loss in strength, heavy staining may reduce specific gravity by 1%to 2%, surface hardness by 2% to 10%, bending and crushingstrength by 1% to 5%, and toughness or shock resistance by15% to 30%. Although molds and stains usually do nothave a major effect on strength, conditions that favor theseorganisms also promote the development of wood-destroying(decay) fungi and soft-rot fungi (Ch. 13). Pieces with moldand stain should be examined closely for decay if they areused for structural purposes. Decay Unlike mold and stain fungi, wood-destroying (decay) fungiseriously reduce strength by metabolizing the cellulosefraction of wood that gives wood its strength. Early stages of decay are virtually impossible to detect. For example, brown-rot fungi may reduce mechanical propertiesin excess of 10% before a measurable weight loss is observedand before decay is visible. When weight loss reaches 5% to10%, mechanical properties are reduced from 20% to 80%.Decay has the greatest effect on toughness, impact bending,and work to maximum load in bending, the least effect onshear and hardness, and an intermediate effect on other prop-erties. Thus, when strength is important, adequate measuresshould be taken to (a) prevent decay before it occurs,(b) control incipient decay by remedial measures (Ch. 13), or(c) replace any wood member in which decay is evident orbelieved to exist in a critical section. Decay can be preventedfrom starting or progressing if wood is kept dry (below 20%moisture content). No method is known for estimating the amount of reduction in strength from the appearance of decayed wood. Therefore,when strength is an important consideration, the safe proce-dure is to discard every piece that contains even a smallamount of decay. An exception may be pieces in which decayoccurs in a knot but does not extend into the surroundingwood. Insect Damage Insect damage may occur in standing trees, logs, and undried(unseasoned) or dried (seasoned) lumber. Although damageis difficult to control in the standing tree, insect damage canbe eliminated to a great extent by proper control methods.Insect holes are generally classified as pinholes, grub holes,and powderpost holes. Because of their irregular burrows,powderpost larvae may destroy most of a piece’s interiorwhile only small holes appear on the surface, and thestrength of the piece may be reduced virtually to zero. Nomethod is known for estimating the reduction in strengthfrom the appearance of insect-damaged wood. 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